Evidence cluster — Reptile (reptile) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)

Evidence: Reptile (reptile) toxicology

Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for reptile. The cluster returns 12 representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.

Studies

• PMID 42041919 (2026, Biology) — Herping the African Continent: Alien Amphibians and Reptiles in Sub-Saharan Africa.. Abstract (opening): Introduction of species represents today one of the most important problems of nature conservation. Special attention is paid to alien vascular plants and vertebrates. In the Afrotropical Region (sub-Saharan Africa), however, there is a lack of comprehensive review of alien amphibians and reptiles. The presented paper constitutes an attempt to overview the status, distribution and threats posed by introduced herp species to sub-Saharan Africa since the second half of the 18th century. This review includes 21 amphibian (including 10 established) and 57 reptile (including 33 established) species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa. Most species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa which subsequently developed viable populations originated from the Malagasy (32%), Afrotropical (30%), and Oriental (27%) Regions. Most introductions were made in the last two decades, mostly as results of an increase in international trade and herp pet industry, especially in South Africa. Stowaway and pet trade are the most common pathways of introductions. Several factors determine the successful establishment of introduced alien herp species in sub-Saharan Africa, viz. behavioral and morphological traits, propagule pressure, climate and habitat overlap, and presence of potentially competing species. The impact of alien herps in sub-Saharan Africa on the local biodiversity is not well investigated. In comparison with other continents the number of introduced and established herp species in sub-Saharan Africa is relatively low. The Malagasy Region has the highest number of introduced herp species in sub-Saharan Africa.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42041919/

• PMID 41972498 (2026, Journal of chemical information and modeling) — Exploring Chemoinformatics Aspects of Few-Shot Meta-Learning by Example of an Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficient in Ionic Liquid Prediction.. Abstract (opening): Collection of substantial training sets for structure-property modeling often poses a significant challenge, especially for niche sorption systems. This study provides computational experiments with meta-learning that presents a compelling solution to the data scarcity challenge in molecular property prediction. Our analysis utilized infinite dilution activity coefficients for several ionic liquid-solute systems, with coefficient prediction for systems with a particular solute constituting a task. The systems were modeled predominantly using model-agnostic meta-learning (MAML), supported by a study on Reptile and its modified variants. The obtained results provide promising insights into training MAML models by expanding the adaptation set size. Metrics such as <i>R</i>², RMSE, and MAE indicate comparable performance to graph neural networks, even when trained on only 64 or 128 data points. The versatility of the fine-tuned models suggests that, in certain cases, performance on a single task may be achieved at the expense of reduced model versatility (catastrophic forgetting). The similarity between the test and training tasks (as approximated by Tanimoto similarity of the solutes' molecules) was identified as a factor affecting performance on the test task. Consequently, Task Similarity-Aware Reptile (TSA-Reptile) was proposed to target those dissimilar tasks. This novel method scales the loss function by similarity to the closest training task. It was shown to outperform MAML on out-of-distribution tasks. Beyond providing the comparative analysis of meta-learning and traditional deep learning, potential strengths of both MAML and TSA-Reptile are discussed.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41972498/

• PMID 42146017 (2026, Frontiers in physiology) — Physiological responses and adaptive mechanisms of amphibians and reptiles to multiple interacting environmental stressors: an integrative review.. Abstract (opening): This integrative review synthesizes current knowledge on the physiological responses and adaptive mechanisms of amphibians and reptiles to multiple interacting environmental stressors, with particular emphasis on synergistic effects among temperature, hydric stress, disease, and pollution. Given the stronger empirical basis for amphibians in the existing literature, amphibian responses are covered in greater depth, while reptile-specific physiology, immunology, and emerging infectious diseases are explicitly addressed in dedicated sections throughout the review. Critical thermal tolerance analyses reveal that approximately 7.5% of amphibian species will exceed their physiological limits under a 4 °C warming scenario, with tropical lowland species already operating near their CTmax thresholds. Thermal plasticity is limited, with acclimation responses averaging only 0.13 °C increase in CTmax per 1 °C environmental warming-insufficient to track rapid climate change. Water balance regulation shows dramatic interspecific variation, with cutaneous resistance ranging from 0.05 s/cm in aquatic amphibians to >1000 s/cm in desert-adapted reptiles. Synergistic interactions between thermal and hydric stress significantly amplify vulnerability, particularly in dehydration scenarios that reduce critical thermal limits. Chemical pollutants, including heavy metals and pesticides, cause developmental abnormalities (535% increase in malformation frequency), immunosuppression, and endocrine disruption across multiple life stages. Emerging infectious diseases, particularly chytridiomycosis (<i>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</i> and <i>B. salamandrivorans</i>) and ranaviruses, drive mass mortality events globally, with co-infections exacerbating population declines. Climate change intensifies disease susceptibility through stress-mediated immunosuppression and altered pathogen dynamics. Adaptive capacity varies markedly among species. While amphibians exhibit strong phenological responses (2-4× greater than other taxa), genetic adaptation potential remains limited by narrow dispersal abilities and habitat fragmentation. Microhabitat buffering can reduce thermal extremes by several degrees but depends critically on habitat structural integrity. This review demonstrates that the pace of anthropogenic change challenges the adaptive capacity of most species, necessitating integrated conservation strategies including microhabitat preservation, climate corridor establishment, pollution mitigation, disease surveillance, and <i>ex-situ</i> conservation programs.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42146017/

• PMID 42325831 (2026, Toxicon: X) — Corrigendum to "Paralysis efficiency (PD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;) scales linearly with lethality (LD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;) in spider venoms" [Toxicon: X. Volume 30 (2026). 100256].. Abstract (opening): [This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2026.100256.].

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42325831/

• PMID 42211340 (2026, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Canine detection for biodiversity protection: a multispecies approach to promote conservation and prevent wildlife trafficking.. Abstract (opening): The Colombian National Police (CNP) has canine teams specialized for detecting mammals, reptiles, and birds illegally trafficked by national and transnational criminal organizations. The objectives are to: (1) establish standards for the scent database, training protocol, and certification of canine teams for wildlife detection; and (2) determine dog sensitivity and specificity in discriminating between target and decoy scents through a double-blind test during the certification of animal scent detection dogs. The methodology initially involved 22 dogs; a structured screening process, based on behavioral suitability, trainability, and preliminary scent discrimination performance, reduced the cohort to four dogs that met the required operational criteria. These dogs conducted three tests daily for 3 days, to discriminate between target and decoy scents, including horsehair, dog and cat food, pig hooves, beef, and chicken feathers. A double-blind test was performed to assess evaluator agreement (Cohen's Kappa), as well as diagnostic performance, where sensitivity was defined as the proportion of correctly identified true positives (excluding false-negatives) and specificity as the proportion of correctly rejected true negatives (excluding false-positives), with false-positives and false-negatives recorded accordingly. The four dogs achieved near-perfect agreement (0.95-1.00) for the scents of feathers from the <i>Ognorhynchus icterotis</i> and <i>Ara macao</i>; hairs from the <i>Saimiri sciureus</i>; carapace of the <i>Trachemys callirostris</i>; skin from the <i>Boa constrictor</i>; and scales from <i>Crocodylus fuscus</i> and <i>Iguana iguana</i>. False positives for the pig-hoof scent as a decoy occurred on the first evaluation day for two of the dogs, but were not present on subsequent days. The established protocol was successful in training and certifying dogs for wildlife odor detection, with sensitivity and specificity ranging from 0.95 to 1.00 across all tested odors. Additional scents should be incorporated during training to achieve high success rates during certification and subsequent performance. Training materials should be species-specific to avoid contamination with other scents. The established protocol was effective for training and certifying canine teams for wildlife odor detection, demonstrating high levels of agreement, sensitivity, and specificity during controlled testing conditions. These findings support the use of standardized, species-specific scent materials and double-blind evaluation methods in certification processes for wildlife-detection dogs.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42211340/

• PMID 42347420 (2026, Toxics) — Microplastic Contamination in Amphibians and Reptiles: An Ecotoxicological Synthesis of Exposure, Mechanisms, and Risk Implications.. Abstract (opening): Microplastic (MP) contamination has become a defining feature of twenty-first century environmental change, yet the toxicological and ecological consequences for amphibians and reptiles-two vertebrate classes already facing severe extinction pressures-remain fragmented across taxa, regions, and methodological traditions. Here, we synthesize field and experimental evidence from five continents to provide a taxonomically balanced, mechanistically grounded, and geographically explicit assessment of MP exposure, bioaccumulation, and toxicity in herpetofauna, drawing on a structured literature search in Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed (January 2015-March 2026). Field detection rates of MPs in amphibian larvae range from 26% in conservatively screened Central European populations to 73-80% in anuran tadpoles from high-anthropogenic-pressure Anatolian catchments, with fibrous polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) particles dominating the detected burden. Mechanistic evidence converges on oxidative stress cascades, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis disruption, gut and cutaneous microbiome dysbiosis, and compromised antiviral and antifungal immunity, with the latter potentially amplifying vulnerability to <i>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</i> and to ranavirus. Among reptiles, sea turtles display near-universal MP ingestion with documented maternal transfer to eggs; freshwater turtles, terrestrial squamates, and crocodilians remain critically understudied. Three structural asymmetries constrain current ecotoxicological risk characterization: taxonomic bias toward anurans and sea turtles, geographic bias toward the Global North, and experimental bias toward acute, supra-environmental laboratory exposures using pristine, single-polymer particles that fail to capture the chemical complexity of weathered field mixtures. We argue that MP burden may warrant consideration as a candidate stressor criterion within IUCN Red List assessments and within environmental risk assessment frameworks for freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity once a robust quantitative relationship between MP burden and demographic decline or population-level fitness has been established, and propose six hypothesis-driven research priorities: methodological standardization, reptile toxicokinetics, transgenerational epigenetics, MP-pathogen microbiome interactions and their translation into population viability models, temperature × MP interaction under climate warming, and population-genetic consequences of contemporary MP-driven selection, as the most tractable avenues for ecotoxicological progress and for the development of herpetofauna-specific risk characterization frameworks.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42347420/

• PMID 42152245 (2026, Chemical biology & drug design) — Peptides as a Therapeutic Alternative Against Leishmaniasis: A Scoping Review.. Abstract (opening): Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease with high global health and socioeconomic burden, particularly in low-income regions where current treatments remain limited by high toxicity, cost, and increasing resistance. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), small bioactive molecules with broad-spectrum activity and low propensity for resistance, have emerged as promising therapeutic candidates. This scoping review aimed to map the existing literature on AMPs with anti-leishmanial activity, updating and expanding upon previous reviews. Following the PRISMA-ScR framework, we systematically searched for primary research articles assessing natural and synthetic peptides through in vitro or in vivo approaches. Seventy-nine studies met eligibility criteria, evaluating 231 unique peptides against multiple Leishmania species. Most investigations were in vitro, particularly on L. major promastigotes and amastigotes. Synthetic and bioengineered peptides demonstrated superior efficacy and selectivity compared with natural peptides, in some cases achieving selectivity indices exceeding 6000. Mechanistic studies revealed that AMPs act primarily through parasite membrane disruption, but also by inducing apoptosis-like processes and modulating host immune responses. Despite their promise, several challenges remain, including peptide instability in physiological conditions, proteolytic degradation, and limited in vivo validation. Advances in chemical modifications and nanocarrier-based delivery systems show potential to overcome these barriers. In conclusion, AMPs represent a compelling avenue for leishmaniasis therapy, especially for cutaneous forms of the disease. However, further studies, particularly in vivo, are critical to translate preclinical findings into clinical application.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42152245/

• PMID 42223730 (2026, Veterinary research communications) — First report of traumatic myiasis in the wild Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis Ouwens, 1912) from Indonesia.. Abstract (opening): Myiasis, the infestation of living vertebrate tissue by dipteran larvae, is commonly reported in humans and domestic animals but rarely documented in wild reptiles. Information on its occurrence in the endangered Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis Ouwens, 1912) is lacking, despite the species' conservation importance. In April 2025, during routine population monitoring in Komodo National Park, an adult male Komodo dragon was captured with a shoulder wound infested by fly larvae. The animal was in good physical condition, and the wound was cleaned and treated before release. A subset of larvae was reared to the third instar for morphological identification. The larvae were exclusively identified as Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart, 1842; Diptera: Calliphoridae), with their developmental stage indicating an approximate post-infestation interval of 2-3 days. Concurrent environmental sampling using baited traps yielded 48 adult flies trapped from the surrounding habitat, including 54% Chrysomya rufifacies, 35% Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius, 1794; Diptera: Calliphoridae), and 10% Sarcophaga sp. (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). This suggests a diversity of potential, opportunistic myiasis agents within the dragon's range. To our knowledge, this is the first documented case of traumatic myiasis in a wild Komodo dragon. This finding underscores the need for a multidisciplinary approach to the management of wild Komodo dragon populations, integrating veterinary medicine and conservation biology to mitigate potential health risks under the One Health framework.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42223730/

• PMID 41893567 (2026, Toxins) — Are Baby Rattlesnakes More Dangerous than Adults? Origin, Transmission, and Prevalence of a Media-Driven Myth, with Evidence of Effective Messaging to Dispel It.. Abstract (opening): The easily defanged myth that baby rattlesnakes (genera <i>Crotalus</i> and <i>Sistrurus</i>) are more dangerous than adults has persisted in North America despite all evidence to the contrary. The most often cited reason for the babies-more-dangerous (BMD) myth is the venom-dump (VD) hypothesis: babies, in contrast to adults, cannot control how much venom they expend, and therefore inject all of it when biting. We undertook three approaches to explore the origin, transmission, and prevalence of this myth and its most frequent explanation. First, we examined historical newspaper accounts. From 130 newspaper stories mentioning the relative danger of baby rattlesnakes, we identified a timeline in which (1) most stories prior to 1969 were factually correct; (2) the BMD myth and VD hypothesis likely originated in the mid-to-late 1960s and became entrenched in California, especially, from 1970 to 1999; (3) factually incorrect statements subsequently prevailed throughout North America from 2000 to 2014; and (4) factually correct stories regained prominence with apparent effective messaging success from 2015 onward. We further learned that general information stories about rattlesnakes, more often citing subject experts like university professors, were much more likely to provide accurate information than local snakebite stories, which more often cited health professionals (e.g., physicians, veterinarians, pharmacists) and emergency responders (e.g., police and fire officers) who frequently supplied misinformation. Second, we surveyed familiarity with the BMD myth and VD hypothesis among 53 university classrooms (including one high school) representing 3751 students across 29 states within the United States. Consistent with the California media's outsized influence on misinformation transmission, familiarity with the myth was greatest in the southwestern states (52.6%) and declined moving north and east, with the least familiarity in the northeastern states (16.4%). Third, a small survey of 75 emergency responders and health professionals from Southern California revealed that a whopping 73.3% actually believed the BMD myth. Numerous organizations generally regarded as authoritative further amplified the misinformation, especially on the internet, where some content persists to this day. Unfortunately, belief in the BMD myth and VD hypothesis can lead to negative consequences, including misinformed risk-taking by those encountering snakes, unwarranted fear among snakebite victims, and inappropriate care delivered by misinformed or patient/family-pressured medical professionals. Our findings target health professionals and emergency responders as priority audiences for education.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41893567/

• PMID 41954651 (2026, Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology) — Roadkill: An Opportunistic Strategy to Track PFAS in Venomous Snakes in a South African Urban Environment.. Abstract (opening): Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are an emerging contaminant globally, with recent attention regarding their presence in South Africa; however, to date, most studies have focused on their presence and impact on aquatic systems. Few sentinels exist capable of defining the presence and role of PFAS in urban environments. Here, we have demonstrated the use of an opportunistic sampling strategy (e.g., roadkill), as a means to obtain specimens capable of defining the potential urban burden of PFAS. Within many urban environments in South Africa, snakes have become widespread, due to the abundance of food and shelter. Employing the roadkill sampling strategy, the livers of three species of apex venomous snakes, black mamba (BM, Dendroaspis polylepis, n = 28), eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps, n = 5), and Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja mossambica, n = 6), were sampled. The snakes were then monitored for 30 PFAS in and around the urban center of Durban, South Africa, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Overall, nine PFAS were quantified across the snakes sampled, dominated by long chain species, along with the presence of an emerging class of replacement PFAS, 9-chlorohexadecafluoro-3-oxanonane-1-sulfonate (6:2 Cl-PFESA). This study reports some of the highest ∑PFAS documented in South African biota at 1084 ng/g dry weight (dw; median ∑PFAS of 511 ng/g dw for BM). While there are obvious caveats to utilizing roadkill for PFAS monitoring, these opportunistic throw-away samples could become useful for tracking the fate of PFAS in threatened or dangerous species, especially within urban environments. Further, these urban sentinels can provide data for a current research gap (terrestrial fate and transport) and offer a glimpse into potential human exposure risks in regions where urban pollution is a growing concern.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41954651/

• PMID 42376688 (2026, Veterinary medicine and science) — Severe Tick Infestation and Haemogregarina spp. Infection in a Captive African Rock Python (Python sebae): A Clinical and Parasitological Case from Nigeria.. Abstract (opening): Ectoparasitic infestations in reptiles-primarily ticks and mites-can significantly compromise their health and fitness, particularly in captivity conditions. This brief report describes a severe tick infestation and concurrent Haemogregarina spp. infection in an African rock python (Python sebae) at a private zoo in Abeokuta, Nigeria. Initial clinical evaluation revealed heavy infestations of Amblyomma latum ticks, pronounced facial swelling, incomplete shedding, anorexia, lethargy, and the presence of intraerythrocytic Haemogregarina-like gamonts on stained blood smears. Haematological analysis further showed mild haemoconcentration and elevated leukocyte differentials suggestive of an inflammatory response, potentially caused by a parasitic infection. The treatment protocol consisted of mechanical removal of ticks, oral administration of Ivermectin, and improved husbandry practices to prevent ectoparasite re-infestation. Post-treatment, the python showed a notable clinical improvement, evidenced by resumed feeding and normal shedding within five days. Microscopic examination of blood smears post-treatment confirmed the absence of Haemogregarina-like gamonts, indicating the effectiveness of the therapeutic approach. Overall, the present case report highlights the importance of parasitic surveillance, rapid intervention, and adherence to rigorous husbandry standards to ensure the health and welfare of reptiles in captivity.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42376688/

• PMID 41749246 (2026, BMC veterinary research) — First report of an iridophoroma in a Tegu (Salvator merianae).. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>This case report describes the clinical and histological findings of a rare periocular iridophoroma in a tegu.<h4>Case presentation</h4>Iridophoroma is a rare type of chromatophoroma, a tumor that arises from iridophores, specialized pigment cells responsible for reflecting light. This case report describes a 6-year-old male Argentine black and white tegu (Salvator merianae) presented with a large, irregular, proliferative mass in the periocular region. The mass originated from the upper left eyelid, partially covering the ocular surface, and measured 2.5 cm in diameter. The patient was referred to the department of Surgery and Intensive care for mass removal and underwent two separate surgical resections. Fine needle aspiration from the structure revealed the diagnosis of iridophoroma, which was later confirmed through histology. This case aims to broaden current knowledge in reptile medicine by presenting an iridophoroma in Salvator merianae, highlighting its clinical presentation, cytological features, and histopathological aspects.<h4>Conclusions</h4>This case represents the first documented occurrence of an iridophoroma in a tegu, highlighting the need for increased awareness and precision in diagnosing tumors in reptiles. The findings demonsrate the importance of paraclinical investigations, such as histopathology, not only in confirming rare conditions but also in differentiating iridophoromas from other potential diagnoses, such as squamous cell carcinoma, papilloma, or melanophoroma. Accurate identification is crucial for guiding appropriate treatment and improving outcomes in reptile medicine.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41749246/

Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_reptile_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).