Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)

Evidence: Pet bird (psittacine) nutrition

Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered nutrient requirements, diet formulation, supplementation and deficiency for psittacine. The cluster returns 12 representative nutrition studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.

Studies

• PMID 41981655 (2026, BMC veterinary research) — Medication adherence in pet bird owners: index development and assessment of various application types via an online questionnaire.. Abstract (opening): BACKGROUND: Adherence to medication prescriptions substantially contributes to therapeutic success. In pet bird medicine, however, measures to determine adherence and possible causes are lacking. This study aimed to develop medication adherence indices for companion bird owners, including single and multiple application types. RESULTS: The single veterinary medication adherence index (SVMAI-4), a 4-point index developed for individual treatment types, considers changes in treatment type, dosage or treatment time, early discontinuation, and total refusal for 9 application types. The overall adherence index OVMAI-5, a 5-point index addresses multiple application types and also considers nonprescribed medication. An online questionnaire was developed to evaluate the indices and measure determinants of adherence based on self-reports and implemented in a cross-sectional survey of 1480 bird owners. The results revealed that oral application directly into the beak (62.5% of birds) and by drinking water (28.3%) were the most common application types. Distinct differences among application types were found. With a range of 0 (full adherence) to 4 (full nonadherence), adherence was highest for cutaneous application (mean = 0.36, standard deviation (SD) = 0.736) and lowest for peroral application into the beak (mean 0.59; SD = 1.023) and injection (mean 0.73, SD = 1.126). The OVMAI-5 calculated when assessing the use of multiple application types resulted in a mean score of 0.84 (SD = 1.247), ranging from 0 to 5. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest a need for action regarding the application types most commonly used in avian medicine. Wherever possible, oral administration via the beak should be avoided. Due to the self-reporting method used, it must be assumed that our results overestimate adherence and cannot be externally evaluated in a straightforward way. Animal patient-related factors are the most important determinants of medication adherence.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41981655/

• PMID 41870074 (2026, Microbiology resource announcements) — Draft genome sequences of 16 multidrug-resistant &lt;i&gt;Enterococcus faecalis&lt;/i&gt; isolated from ornamental birds and associated environments in Bangladesh.. Abstract (opening): We report the draft genomes of 16 multidrug-resistant <i>Enterococcus faecalis</i> isolated from ornamental bird settings in Bangladesh. Genomes harbored antimicrobial resistance and virulence factor genes, plasmids, and bacteriocins, with high pathogenicity scores. These findings highlight the potential zoonotic and environmental health risks posed by <i>E. faecalis</i> in ornamental bird environments.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41870074/

• PMID 42337985 (2026, MicrobiologyOpen) — Detection and Characterization of ESBL-Producing and Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in Ornamental Birds and Their Surrounding Environments.. Abstract (opening): Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-KP) and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) represent a global health risk, with ornamental birds serving as potential reservoirs for their dissemination. This study aimed to isolate and characterize ESBL-KP and CRKP from ornamental birds and their surrounding environments. A total of 112 samples, including equal numbers of feces, cage swab, cage water, cage feed, store feed, handler's hand swab, nasal swab, and air samples, were collected equally from both households and pet bird shops. Overall, 52.68% (59/112, CI₉₅: 0.435-0.6168) isolates were confirmed as positive, where a higher occurrence was observed in pet store samples (32/56, 57.14%) than in household samples (27/56, 48.21%). In the disk diffusion test, 79.67% (47/59, CI₉₅: 0.6773-0.8796) isolates were identified as multidrug-resistant, with high resistance to imipenem and cefotaxime (both 66.10%), meropenem and ceftriaxone (each 59.02%). The occurrence of ESBL-producing isolates was higher in shop samples (26/32, 81.25%) than in household samples (12/27, 44.44%). In the Congo Red assay, 76.28% (45/59, CI₉₅: 0.6403-0.8531) isolates were identified as strong biofilm producers. Resistance genes, bla_CTX-M (92.10%), bla_TEM (84.21%), bla_SHV (78.95%), bla_OXA-51 (51.42%), and bla_NDM (34.29%), conferring resistance to beta-lactams and carbapenems were detected in the K. pneumoniae isolates, along with virulence genes, uge (100%), entB (83.05%), mrkD (81.36%), and kfu (30.51%). As a first report from Bangladesh, this study highlights the widespread occurrence of ESBL-KP, CRKP and biofilm-producing K. pneumoniae in ornamental birds, emphasizing the urgent need for a One Health approach to prevent associated zoonotic and environmental risks.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42337985/

• PMID 42255501 (2026, Science in One Health) — The re-emergence of psittacosis in China: a scoping review of epidemiology, diagnostics, and One Health priorities.. Abstract (opening): Psittacosis caused by <i>Chlamydia psittaci</i> has re-emerged in China as sporadic cases and localized outbreaks. However, current knowledge remains fragmented across the clinical, veterinary, epidemiological, and public health fields. This scoping review mapped studies on psittacosis in China, identified major knowledge gaps, and defined priorities for research, clinical management, and prevention and control. Following the Arksey and O'Malley framework and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase were searched for studies published between 1 January 1985 and 31 December 2025 and synthesized eligible studies with descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. A total of 424 studies were included. Research interest showed recent sharp increases and was concentrated in Eastern and Central China. Case reports and series dominated the literature, whereas analytic epidemiology, standardized surveillance, and high-resolution molecular studies remained limited. Reported cases were most often documented in middle-aged and older adults with avian exposure, including pet birds and poultry, and the reported occurrence showed a winter-spring pattern. Pneumonia was the predominant clinical presentation, and severe cases could progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome and multi-organ dysfunction. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) was the most frequently reported diagnostic method in recent studies, while PCR and serology remained important complementary tools. Overall, the literature is growing rapidly, but remains uneven in geographic coverage, study design, and integration across human, animal, and environmental sectors. These findings support broader One Health surveillance, stronger analytic and molecular epidemiology, and more standardized approaches to diagnosis, source investigation, and prevention in China.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42255501/

• PMID 41783864 (2026, Cureus) — Pediatric Allergy to Poultry Meat: A Case of Egg-Bird Syndrome.. Abstract (opening): Poultry meat allergy is a rare condition that can present as a primary allergy or a secondary syndrome, such as the egg-bird syndrome. This syndrome involves primary sensitization to egg yolk (alpha-livetin (Gal d 5)) leading to cross-reactivity with poultry meat. We describe the case of a 12-year-old male patient who presented with a history of primary egg allergy and allergy to dog epithelium. He subsequently developed an allergy to poultry meat. Immunoallergological evaluation showed sensitization to egg yolk, chicken meat, and alpha-livetin (Gal d 5). Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) immunoblotting confirmed immunoglobulin E (IgE) reactivity to alpha-livetin and avian muscle serum albumin, with no cross-reactivity to dog epithelium. This confirmed the diagnosis of egg-bird syndrome. Due to severe asthma and multiple food allergies impacting his quality of life, the patient was treated with omalizumab. This case highlights the clinical complexity of the egg-bird syndrome and the utility of molecular diagnostics in differentiating cross-reactivities. Omalizumab proved effective in managing the patient's polysensitization and asthma, improving quality of life.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41783864/

• PMID 41745979 (2026, Veterinary sciences) — Characterization and Comparative Analysis of Gut Microbiomes in Fourteen Parrot Species.. Abstract (opening): Although the gut microbiome constitutes a key component of vertebrate physiology, comparative baseline data for companion birds, particularly parrots, remain limited. Therefore, this study profiled the fecal gut microbiota of 31 privately owned companion parrots representing 14 psittacine species maintained in indoor household environments for >6 months. Amplicons targeting the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene were sequenced, denoised into amplicon sequence variants using QIIME 2 with DADA2, and taxonomically assigned against the SILVA v132 database. Community composition was broadly dominated by <i>Firmicutes</i> and <i>Proteobacteria</i>, with recurrent detection of <i>Lactobacillus</i> across most samples, consistent with a potential core component of the gut microbiome of captive parrots. Taken together, this study provides an exploratory comparative snapshot of fecal gut microbiota across diverse companion parrot species and establishes baseline reference data for future research linking diet, husbandry practices, and health to microbiome variation, including longitudinal and wild-captive comparative investigations.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41745979/

• PMID 41745965 (2026, Veterinary sciences) — Avian Candidiasis: A Comprehensive Review of Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Control.. Abstract (opening): This review is a comprehensive investigation of avian candidiasis, mainly caused by <i>Candida albicans</i>, although the prevalence of non-albicans <i>Candida</i> species has increased in domestic and wild birds. Avian candidiasis causes significant economic losses in poultry production through increased mortality, cost of treatments, and reduced growth rates, particularly in young birds and intensive farming operations. The pathogenesis section provides a description of the molecular virulence factors such as adhesin-mediated attachment (ALS, Agglutinin-Like Sequence family; HWP1, Hyphal Wall Protein 1), yeast-to-hypha morphogenesis, tissue damage by Candidalysin, biofilm formation on mucosal and abiotic surfaces, and secreted hydrolytic enzymes including secreted aspartyl proteinases (SAPs) and phospholipases. The identified predisposing factors include immunosuppression, malnutrition, abuse of antibiotics, bad husbandry, and crop stasis. The diagnostic methods discussed encompass cytological analysis and fungal culture on selective media to more sophisticated methods of molecular analysis (PCR, MALDI-TOF MS, and NGS). Antifungal susceptibility investigations indicate that nystatin and amphotericin B are still very effective against most avian isolates and that resistance to the azoles is on the rise, especially with respect to the non-albicans <i>Candida</i> species. Nystatin is still the first-line treatment of localized infections; azoles are still used for resistant or systemic infections despite their hepatotoxicity. Sanitation, proper nutrition, and proper use of antimicrobials are essential to prevent diseases. The knowledge gaps comprise the absence of avian-specific pharmacokinetic information, poor knowledge of species-species virulence phenotypes, and the lack of point-of-care diagnostics. The need to have integrated One Health surveillance systems is emphasized by the zoonotic potential of the avian <i>Candida</i> reservoirs.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41745965/

• PMID 42181097 (2026, Veterinary and animal science) — Almond shell as an insoluble fibre source in laying pullets: influence of inclusion level and particle size on performance and intestinal health.. Abstract (opening): Dietary fibre (DF) is increasingly recognised for its role in poultry nutrition, particularly in supporting gut health. Almond shells (AS), rich in insoluble fibre (IF), represent a potential DF source. This study assessed the effects of fine (FAS) and coarse (CAS) AS included at 1% and 2% (FAS1, FAS2, CAS1, CAS2) compared with a control diet (NC) without supplemental IF on growth performance, dry matter digestibility, organ development, intestinal morphology, gene expression, caecal microbiota, and volatile fatty acids (VFA) in 6-week-old pullets over 28 days. AS inclusion did not influence productive parameters (<i>P</i> > 0.05). However, diets with 2% FAS, 1% CAS, and 2% CAS improved dry matter digestibility versus NC (<i>P</i> < 0.05). Proventriculus weight was greater in CAS-fed birds than in NC or FAS groups (<i>P</i> < 0.05), indicating a particle-size effect. Gizzard development was enhanced in FAS2, CAS1, and CAS2 compared with NC and FAS1 (<i>P</i> < 0.05), suggesting effects of both inclusion level and particle size. In intestinal morphology, CAS-fed birds exhibited longer villi, greater villus surface area, and thicker mucosa in the duodenum and jejunum than FAS-fed birds (<i>P</i> < 0.05). No dietary effects were detected on barrier-related or inflammatory gene expression, caecal microbiota, or VFA profiles (<i>P</i> > 0.05). In conclusion, AS inclusion as an IF source was associated with improved dry matter digestibility, increased relative weights of the proventriculus and gizzard, and enhanced intestinal morphology, particularly at 2% inclusion and in coarse particle form. Although, no effects were detected on growth performance, microbiota, or VFA profiles.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42181097/

• PMID 41998070 (2026, Scientific reports) — The role of synbiotic in controlling Salmonella infection in broilers.. Abstract (opening): Salmonellosis significantly affects poultry production sector and public health, through the emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains, which require attempts to use sustainable, safe, and effective alternatives. This study was carried out over the period spanning 2024 to 2025 and involved two steps. The first step included Salmonella isolation and characterization from 25 diseased poultry farms from various regions of Northwest Delta, Egypt, focusing on some of their virulence genes and sensitivity to antibiotics. The second experimental step involved exploring the effectiveness of synbiotic compared with traditional antibiotics in reducing Salmonella colonization and their impact on poultry performance, including growth performance, immunological parameters, and pathological changes after artificial infection. The result revealed the presence of Salmonella sp. in 16% (40/250) of examined samples, including 3 serotypes, Salmonella Papuana, Salmonella Enteritidis, and Salmonella Kentucky, with different values of MAR index ranging between 0.21 and 0.43. Marked resistances were recorded against amoxicillin, lincomycin and spiramycin (100%), followed by ampicillin (75%), while the highest sensitivity was observed toward amikacin, gentamicin, cefotaxime, colistin sulfate, and streptomycin. All Salmonella strains contained the invA and enterotoxin gene (stn), whereas spvC was detected in 75% of isolates. The study declared the impact of the supplementation of synbiotic in feed in improvement of the growth performance parameters, decreased Salmonella colonization, reduced severity of clinical signs and postmortem lesions relative to the other groups (untreated group and antibiotic treated group), in addition to its considerable improvement in hematological, biochemical, and immunological parameters and less pathological alterations than other groups.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41998070/

• PMID 42147779 (2026, Animal welfare (South Mimms, England)) — PsittaWel: A welfare assessment tool for companion parrots.. Abstract (opening): While parrots are popular companion animals, many experience significant welfare challenges, often resulting from not fulfilling their behavioural, environmental, and social needs. To address this issue, we developed a welfare assessment tool designed specifically for companion parrot caregivers. We involved a panel of seven experts with extensive working experience with companion parrots and in animal welfare assessment. Using an iterative process consisting of four online surveys and nine focus group meetings, the expert panel was invited to select relevant welfare indicators, rephrase selected indicators into user-friendly questions, identify missing content, and finally review the wording and structure of the tool. A preliminary version of the tool was then evaluated by four additional anonymous external experts and 69 parrot caregivers for its completeness, clarity and practicality through an online survey. Feedback from this stage was incorporated, and the revised version was subsequently reviewed again by the initial expert panel. The resulting tool, PsittaWel (freely downloadable at: https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/psittawel), consists of 75 questions covering 145 welfare indicators and is divided into eight sections covering key aspects of parrot welfare: general information; physical health; housing and physical activity; provision of enrichment and exploration; nutrition and maintenance behaviours; social and reproductive behaviours; parrot-human interactions; maladaptive and fear-related behaviours. Further research is needed to assess the reliability of the indicators. Nevertheless, PsittaWel is already a valuable tool for caregivers to monitor welfare and identify potential room for improvement, ultimately improving the lives of their companion parrot.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42147779/

• PMID 41301945 (2025, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — What Drives Pet Food Choices? A Systematic Literature Review.. Abstract (opening): The rapid expansion of the global pet food industry has intensified interest in understanding the factors shaping pet owners' purchasing decisions. This systematic literature review synthesises evidence from 40 peer-reviewed studies published between 2006 and 2024 to identify the key drivers of consumer behaviour toward commercial pet food. Following PRISMA guidelines, articles were retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Findings reveal six main categories influencing purchasing behaviour: intrinsic and extrinsic product characteristics, psychological, biological and physiological, sociocultural, and situational factors. Product quality, ingredient composition, price, brand reputation, sustainability, and pet health status emerged as consistent determinants of choice. The review highlights that consumer behaviour toward pet food remains a developing research field with limited cross-regional studies and methodological diversity. Future research should expand geographically and explore the intersection of sustainability, pet welfare, and owner psychology in pet food decision-making.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41301945/

• PMID 40860922 (2025, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Avian toxicoses: a review.. Abstract (opening): Bird species, both domestic and wild, are frequently exposed to a wide range of toxic compounds. Toxicosis in avian patients is often a clinical challenge. Diagnosis often relies on history and clinical signs because specific tests for most toxicants are not available in clinical practice, or they require unsustainable blood volume for small avian species. The management of toxicoses consists of patient stabilization, decreasing toxin absorption, improving its elimination, and supporting therapy. This literature review provides an outline of the most common toxicoses in birds, as well as their diagnosis and possible treatments.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40860922/

Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_nutrition_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).