Evidence: Green iguana (Iguana iguana) toxicology
Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for Iguana iguana. The cluster returns 12 representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.
Studies
- PMID 42041919 (2026, Biology) — Herping the African Continent: Alien Amphibians and Reptiles in Sub-Saharan Africa.. Abstract (opening): Introduction of species represents today one of the most important problems of nature conservation. Special attention is paid to alien vascular plants and vertebrates. In the Afrotropical Region (sub-Saharan Africa), however, there is a lack of comprehensive review of alien amphibians and reptiles. The presented paper constitutes an attempt to overview the status, distribution and threats posed by introduced herp species to sub-Saharan Africa since the second half of the 18th century. This review includes 21 amphibian (including 10 established) and 57 reptile (including 33 established) species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa. Most species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa which subsequently developed viable populations originated from the Malagasy (32%), Afrotropical (30%), and Oriental (27%) Regions. Most introductions were made in the last two decades, mostly as results of an increase in international trade and herp pet industry, especially in South Africa. Stowaway and pet trade are the most common pathways of introductions. Several factors determine the successful establishment of introduced alien herp species in sub-Saharan Africa, viz. behavioral and morphological traits, propagule pressure, climate and habitat overlap, and presence of potentially competing species. The impact of alien herps in sub-Saharan Africa on the local biodiversity is not well investigated. In comparison with other continents the number of introduced and established herp species in sub-Saharan Africa is relatively low. The Malagasy Region has the highest number of introduced herp species in sub-Saharan Africa.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42041919/
- PMID 42121721 (2026, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — Tiletamine-Zolazepam Use in Exotic Pets and Wildlife Anesthesia: A Narrative Review Towards Practical Guidelines.. Abstract (opening): This narrative review examines the clinical application of tiletamine-zolazepam (TZ) in exotic pet and wildlife anesthesia, addressing the complexities inherent in managing a broad taxonomic spectrum with diverse physiological profiles and temperaments. As a fixed-dose combination, TZ is a cornerstone of multimodal protocols designed to achieve balanced anesthesia. Its lyophilized formulation permits reconstitution with various sedative solutions, facilitating low-volume administration, a critical requirement for the immobilization of wildlife and small exotic patients. Given the significant variability in species-specific responses and environmental influences, selecting and adapting appropriate TZ-based protocols remain a challenge for practitioners. By synthesizing heterogeneous data into expert-validated guidance, this review provides specialized and general veterinarians with practical considerations for the judicious use of TZ. Emphasis is placed on integrating TZ within multimodal protocols to mitigate arousal risks, ensure consistent immobilization, and facilitate rapid recovery. This approach seeks to optimize anesthetic outcomes and promote animal welfare across these physiologically diverse populations.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42121721/
- PMID 42211340 (2026, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Canine detection for biodiversity protection: a multispecies approach to promote conservation and prevent wildlife trafficking.. Abstract (opening): The Colombian National Police (CNP) has canine teams specialized for detecting mammals, reptiles, and birds illegally trafficked by national and transnational criminal organizations. The objectives are to: (1) establish standards for the scent database, training protocol, and certification of canine teams for wildlife detection; and (2) determine dog sensitivity and specificity in discriminating between target and decoy scents through a double-blind test during the certification of animal scent detection dogs. The methodology initially involved 22 dogs; a structured screening process, based on behavioral suitability, trainability, and preliminary scent discrimination performance, reduced the cohort to four dogs that met the required operational criteria. These dogs conducted three tests daily for 3 days, to discriminate between target and decoy scents, including horsehair, dog and cat food, pig hooves, beef, and chicken feathers. A double-blind test was performed to assess evaluator agreement (Cohen's Kappa), as well as diagnostic performance, where sensitivity was defined as the proportion of correctly identified true positives (excluding false-negatives) and specificity as the proportion of correctly rejected true negatives (excluding false-positives), with false-positives and false-negatives recorded accordingly. The four dogs achieved near-perfect agreement (0.95-1.00) for the scents of feathers from the <i>Ognorhynchus icterotis</i> and <i>Ara macao</i>; hairs from the <i>Saimiri sciureus</i>; carapace of the <i>Trachemys callirostris</i>; skin from the <i>Boa constrictor</i>; and scales from <i>Crocodylus fuscus</i> and <i>Iguana iguana</i>. False positives for the pig-hoof scent as a decoy occurred on the first evaluation day for two of the dogs, but were not present on subsequent days. The established protocol was successful in training and certifying dogs for wildlife odor detection, with sensitivity and specificity ranging from 0.95 to 1.00 across all tested odors. Additional scents should be incorporated during training to achieve high success rates during certification and subsequent performance. Training materials should be species-specific to avoid contamination with other scents. The established protocol was effective for training and certifying canine teams for wildlife odor detection, demonstrating high levels of agreement, sensitivity, and specificity during controlled testing conditions. These findings support the use of standardized, species-specific scent materials and double-blind evaluation methods in certification processes for wildlife-detection dogs.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42211340/
- PMID 41749246 (2026, BMC veterinary research) — First report of an iridophoroma in a Tegu (Salvator merianae).. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>This case report describes the clinical and histological findings of a rare periocular iridophoroma in a tegu.<h4>Case presentation</h4>Iridophoroma is a rare type of chromatophoroma, a tumor that arises from iridophores, specialized pigment cells responsible for reflecting light. This case report describes a 6-year-old male Argentine black and white tegu (Salvator merianae) presented with a large, irregular, proliferative mass in the periocular region. The mass originated from the upper left eyelid, partially covering the ocular surface, and measured 2.5 cm in diameter. The patient was referred to the department of Surgery and Intensive care for mass removal and underwent two separate surgical resections. Fine needle aspiration from the structure revealed the diagnosis of iridophoroma, which was later confirmed through histology. This case aims to broaden current knowledge in reptile medicine by presenting an iridophoroma in Salvator merianae, highlighting its clinical presentation, cytological features, and histopathological aspects.<h4>Conclusions</h4>This case represents the first documented occurrence of an iridophoroma in a tegu, highlighting the need for increased awareness and precision in diagnosing tumors in reptiles. The findings demonsrate the importance of paraclinical investigations, such as histopathology, not only in confirming rare conditions but also in differentiating iridophoromas from other potential diagnoses, such as squamous cell carcinoma, papilloma, or melanophoroma. Accurate identification is crucial for guiding appropriate treatment and improving outcomes in reptile medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41749246/
- PMID 42313899 (2026, Veterinary medicine and science) — A Multispecies Systematic and Critical Review of Intranasal Administration in Veterinary Anaesthesia and Emergency Care: Promising Evidence and Overlooked Challenges.. Abstract (opening): Intranasal (IN) drug delivery has increasingly considered as an easy, practical and non-invasive alternative to parenteral administration in veterinary medicine, offering rapid systemic and potential nose-to-brain effects. The first part of this review systematically collected and synthesized published evidence on IN administration across animal species, while the second part critically analysed the anatomical, pharmacological and technical factors that determine its success and limitations. Part I consisted a total of 110 eligible studies published between 1991 and 2025, encompassing dogs, cats, rabbits, pigs, ruminants, birds and reptiles. IN delivery has been investigated for a range of purposes and produced clinically meaningful sedation, analgesia and drug reversal, often comparable to intramuscular administration but generally characterized by slower onset and greater variability among species. Despite encouraging and favourable results, IN delivery was not without limitations. Its effectiveness can be strongly influenced by species-specific nasal anatomy and physiology, formulation characteristics and dosing volume. Defensive reactions, poor tolerability, sneezing, nasopharyngeal irritations, hypersalivation or swallowing of the drug are frequently reported. Future progress requires species-specific case selection guidelines and dosing standards, pharmacokinetic validation and developing safe concentrated formulations. Transparent reporting and balanced assessment of both benefits and drawbacks are essential to ensure the safe, effective and ethically responsible integration of IN administration into veterinary anaesthesia and critical care practice.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42313899/
- PMID 40470286 (2025, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Case Report: Oral fecal microbiota transplantation in a Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise (<i>Testudo graeca</i>) suffering from chronic gastrointestinal disease-procedure, clinical outcome and follow-up.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is the process of transferring fecal microbiota from a healthy donor into the gastrointestinal tract of a recipient. Although many mechanisms of FMT are still not completely understood at present, it has been described that the treatment of various gastrointestinal diseases in different species, including humans, is significantly improved by FMT therapy. Since the first report on FMT therapy in veterinary medicine in small mammals numerous cases have been reported, but little information has been published on the therapeutic effects of FMT treatment in reptiles. The present case report describes the effects of orally administered fecal microbiota transplantation in a Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise (<i>Testudo graeca</i>) suffering from chronic gastrointestinal disorders.<h4>Case presentation</h4>A nine-year-old, 330 g, intact female Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise (<i>Testudo graeca</i>) from the animal owner's own offspring was presented for consultation due to decreased general condition, anorexia and sialorrhea following oral intake of a lettuce species (<i>Lactuca virosa</i>) known for its poisonous plant ingredients (sesquiterpene lactones) 3 weeks prior to presentation. Pre-existing conditions were not reported. Clinical examination revealed sialorrhea and a reduced general condition. Diagnostic procedures included blood chemistry, radiography and ultrasonography. Despite repeated treatment attempts with various medical regimes over 158 days, the tortoise continued showing variable recurring gastrointestinal symptoms. An orally administered FMT was initiated and continued for a total of 3 weeks. Gastrointestinal signs improved rapidly within 1 week and resolved completely after 3 weeks. Over a follow up period of 9 months, no symptom recurrence or adverse effects were monitored.<h4>Conclusion</h4>This case report describes the first successful trial of fecal microbiota transplantation in chelonians. The outcome indicates that this therapeutic approach may be beneficial not only to small animals but also for the therapy of gastrointestinal disorders in reptiles, especially those cases with insufficient conventional therapy results.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40470286/
- PMID 41600686 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Biochemical and Hepatic Determinants of Reproductive Failure in Reptiles: A Review of Dystocia Pathophysiology and Management.. Abstract (opening): Dystocia represents a multifactorial and clinically significant reproductive disorder affecting a broad spectrum of reptilian species. Commonly resulting from prolonged vitellogenesis, endocrine disruption, or hepatic lipidosis, dystocia is often exacerbated by suboptimal husbandry or concurrent disease. This review critically evaluates the etiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic interventions associated with this condition. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between metabolic exhaustion and hepatic compromise, which may lower the threshold for surgical intervention. The efficacy and limitations of oxytocin-based protocols are discussed in the context of hormonal receptor variability and response attenuation. Advanced diagnostic modalities, including ultrasonography, radiography/CT, and biochemical profiling, are reviewed for their utility in case stratification. Finally, surgical management options are considered for cases refractory to medical treatment, with attention paid to timing, anesthetic risk, and post-operative care. Collectively, this synthesis aims to inform evidence-based clinical decision-making and promote improved standards of care in reptile reproductive medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/
- PMID 40606263 (2025, International journal for parasitology. Parasites and wildlife) — Efficacy and safety of afoxolaner (NexGard®) in a collection of captive-bred lizards for the treatment and control of mite infestation.. Abstract (opening): Lizards and other reptiles are increasingly gaining popularity as pets worldwide. These animals may be commonly parasitized by species of mites such as <i>Ophionyssus natricis</i>, which are deleterious, also because of their role as vectors of pathogens, including zoonotic ones. Treatment options are limited and may not be completely resolutive or safe. The aim of the present study was to assess the efficacy of afoxolaner (NexGard®; Boehringer Ingelheim, Germany) in a collection of mite-infested captive-bred lizards that were housed in mixed enclosures with other reptile classes, in a zoological park located in southern Italy. Lizards were clinically examined and weighed, and mite infestations were assessed on the animals and in their enclosures (environment). All animals were treated with a dose of 2.5 mg afoxolaner per kilogram body weight (2.5 mg/kg) administered orally. All animals were examined pre-treatment (T0) and at various time points post-treatment (T1, 24 h; T2, 14 days; T3, 28 days). The collected mites were morphologically identified at the species level and the species identity also confirmed molecularly and phylogenetically. Animals were morpho-molecularly screened for hemoparasites, endoparasites and vector-borne pathogens. Overall, 28 lizards were screened, and <i>Leishmania infantum</i> was detected in a Sudan plated lizard. Moreover, 6 (21.4 %) lizards had at least one mite. Mites were identified as <i>O. natricis</i> and <i>Pterygosoma inermis</i> infesting Indonesian blue-tongued skinks and Roughtail rock agamas, respectively. No mites were found on hosts after T1, and at T3 no mites were observed in the environment. No side effects were observed in the treated lizards. A single oral administration of afoxolaner at 2.5 mg/kg was a safe treatment in lizards and 100 % effective for the treatment and prevention of common mite species infestations.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40606263/
- PMID 40025469 (2025, BMC veterinary research) — Neo-tropical species production: a sustainable strategy for climate change adaptation in neo-tropical regions.. Abstract (opening): This opinion piece clarifies the impact of climate change on animal production in the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region and proposes a sustainable solution. Anthropogenic climate change has resulted in higher ambient temperatures, rainfall, humidity, storms and desertification. These events have direct and indirect effects on conventional animal performance and this piece will highlight the impact of increased temperatures on their welfare, health and production in the LAC. Alternative species such as neo-tropical wildlife animals have been proposed as climate resilient animals for use in the LAC, as they are well adapted to the climate and environment in the tropics. Some of these animals include capybara, lappe, agouti, caiman, cocrico and collared peccary. Neo-tropical animal production has the potential to produce nutritious meat, quality leather, reduce pollution and serve as a form of sustainable production. These animals can be inserted into a sustainable production system as their feed resources can be supplied through the use of local feedstuff, they also require less water and energy for maintenance, as they are well adapted to the high temperature and humidity in comparison to domesticated animals such as cattle, pigs and chickens. Finally, the key challenges including the legal use of the animals throughout the year, lack of technical experience and limited knowledge on the biology of these animals are discussed.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40025469/
- PMID 41144466 (2025, PloS one) — Zoonotic bacteria in invasive California Kingsnake Lampropeltis californiae from Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>Invasive species can spread pathogens to newly colonised areas and indirectly affect animals and humans. In the Canary Islands territory (Spain), the California kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) is one of the most relevant invasive species because its predatory habits, however, there is scarce information about the microorganisms they carry and the risk to human health, for that reason, and considering previous data on the pathogens harboured by exotic reptiles in the archipelago, the aim of this study was to analyse the presence of pathogenic bacteria in these animals.<h4>Methods</h4>Fifty L. californiae specimens from Gran Canaria Island (Canary Islands, Spain) were examined for zoonotic bacteria. For that purpose, faecal samples were obtained during the necropsy of the animals and inoculated in different selective agar media. If bacterial growth was observed, bacterial colonies were subjected to DNA extraction. The species were confirmed using PCR methods and band pattern comparison.<h4>Results</h4>Almost all, 49 out of 50 (98%), of the studied animals were positive for at least one of the selected bacteria. Salmonella spp. (76.0%, 38/50), Yersinia enterocolitica (58.0%, 29/50), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (42.0%, 21/50), Campylobacter spp. (34.0%, 17/50) and Escherichia coli virulence genes (stx and eae) (16.0%, 8/50) were identified.<h4>Conclusions</h4>The presence of well-known zoonotic bacteria in L. californiae from Gran Canaria suppose a threat to people that use them as pets, especially children, elderly, and animal handlers, since they cause gastrointestinal symptoms that can lead to severe complications and invasive infections. In addition to that, these colubrids could also spread pathogens to other animals and the environment, adding to the notorious problem of biodiversity losses due to predation of native fauna.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41144466/
- PMID 40431547 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Hematology and Plasma Biochemistry Reference Values of the Subgenus <i>Hapturosaurus</i> (<i>Varanus macraei</i>, <i>Varanus prasinus</i>, <i>Varanus beccarii</i>) Under Human Care.. Abstract (opening): The tree monitor lizards of the subgenus <i>Hapturosaurus</i> are an understudied but increasingly important group of reptiles in zoos. The routine blood analysis of reptiles in captivity is highly recommended; however, the lack of reliable reference values for many species severely limits their clinical use. This study aims to establish preliminary reference values (RV) for the main hematological and biochemical parameters in three species of the subgenus <i>Hapturosaurus</i> (<i>Varanus macraei</i>, <i>Varanus prasinus</i> and <i>Varanus beccarii</i>). Blood samples were taken from healthy adult individuals (<i>n</i> = 34), females (<i>n</i> = 18) and males (<i>n</i> = 16), maintained under controlled conditions in a zoo. A complete biochemical analysis was performed on all individuals, including alanine-aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, aspartate-aminotransferase, creatine kinase, bile acids, urea, uric acid, total solids, total proteins, albumin, glucose, fructosamine, lactate, cholesterol, triglycerides, amylase, calcium, phosphorus, calcium:phosphorus ratio, and magnesium. In addition, a complete hematological analysis was conducted on these individuals, including hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, total erythrocyte and leukocyte counts, and leukocyte differential count. From the data obtained, reference intervals were established following the guidelines provided by the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ASVCP). In this study, the results of the three species were unified to increase the sample size and to obtain more representative reference intervals. This unification was supported by a statistical analysis using the one-factor ANOVA test, which showed no statistically significant differences between species (<i>p</i> < 0.050). These data constitute an essential first step for the clinical practice and management of these <i>Hapturosaurus</i> species in zoos and specialized centers. Future collaboration with other institutions will help expand the dataset and enhance the accuracy of the established reference values.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40431547/
- PMID 40906426 (2025, Biology) — Botanical Assessment of Disturbed Urban Population of Threatened Gopher Tortoise (<i>Gopherus polyphemus</i>) Habitat in SE Florida During Drought.. Abstract (opening): Gopher tortoises (<i>Gopherus polyphemus</i>) are threatened burrowing keystone ecosystem engineers indigenous to open uplands in the Southeastern United States. Perils to the species include habitat degradation and fragmentation, anthropogenic disturbances, predation, parasites, and disease. Problems are severe in the SE Florida study area due to coastal urban sprawl, confining the tortoises in small, scattered, unnatural pockets subject to novel stresses. The annual South Florida February to ca. late May dry season became a severe drought in 2025. The present project centered on the broad question of foodplant resilience through the drought. The tortoise-grazed areas host three dominant groundcover species, in order of abundance: non-native <i>Richardia grandiflora</i>, native grass <i>Paspalum setaceum</i>, and non-native sedge <i>Fimbristylis cymosa.</i> Key findings were as follows: 1. The most abundant and most-often grazed species, <i>Richardia grandiflora</i>, when tortoises were excluded, expanded despite the drought (from 39% to 49.5% mean coverage). Under combined drought and grazing, that species cover decreased slightly (42.5% to 39.4%). Tortoise-free, <i>Paspalum setaceum</i> declined slightly during the drought (32.7% to 27.1% mean coverage), and showed mixed results with little net effect exposed to drought and to grazing. Never observed to be grazed during the study, <i>Fimbristylis cymosa</i> formed a nearly monospecific lawn in a sizeable portion of the study area. During the drought, it mostly browned, retaining green rosette centers, and tortoise exclusion showed no discernable effect. With transition to late spring, however, with increased rainfall, tortoise exclusion allowed rapid competition from grasses among the <i>Fimbristylis</i> rosettes. Adjacent unenclosed grazing, by contrast, maintained the <i>Fimbristylis</i> lawn without increase in grass coverage. Conclusions are that the two chief "fodder" species, <i>Richardia grandiflora</i> and <i>Paspalum setaceum</i>, were robust to drought and grazing. The introduced <i>Fimbristylis cymosa</i> appears to be facilitated by selective grazing-suppressing grass competitors.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40906426/
Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_iguana_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).