Evidence cluster — Corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)

Evidence: Corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) nutrition

Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered nutrient requirements, diet formulation, supplementation and deficiency for Pantherophis guttatus. The cluster returns 12 representative nutrition studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.

Studies

PMID 42054189 (2026, Development (Cambridge, England)) — The vertebrate yolk sac: evolutionary origins and current advances in in vitro models.. Abstract (opening): A key innovation in the evolutionary history of animals was the emergence of embryonic yolk, maternal nutrient deposits in the egg primarily composed of lipids and vitellogenin proteins. To contain and utilise yolk as a nutritional resource, many species have co-opted extra-embryonic tissue, named the extra-embryonic endoderm, to form a yolk sac. Extra-embryonic endoderm is believed to be conserved across vertebrate evolution, although its form and function have varied greatly over the past 500 million years. The yolk sac retains an essential role in nutrient transport, even in mammalian species that subsequently lost their yolk, and has also evolved additional functions in signalling and embryonic patterning. In this Review, we summarise our current understanding of vertebrate extra-embryonic endoderm evolution and diversity. We synthesise recent findings in reptiles to examine the evolution of the yolk sac and extra-embryonic endoderm in amniotes. Finally, we discuss how in vitro models can illuminate the function of this evolutionarily ancient extra-embryonic tissue, especially in the context of human development, in which yolk sac samples are extremely limited for investigation.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42054189/

PMID 42071908 (2026, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — Composition and Legal Aspects of Reptiles and Amphibians Displayed at an Exotic Pet Fair in Warsaw (Poland).. Abstract (opening): The global exotic pet trade has expanded in recent decades, raising concerns related to animal welfare, biodiversity conservation, and compliance with international regulations. Reptiles and amphibians constitute a major component of this trade, yet information on species availability and trade practices at exotic pet fairs remains limited. The primary aim of this study was to identify the reptile and amphibian species offered for sale at an exotic pet fair in Warsaw, Poland. Secondary objectives were to assess the declared origin of the animals and the availability of information regarding their legal and conservation status. Photographic documentation of all exhibition tables was used to record species identity, number of individuals, and labeling practices. In total, 818 individuals representing 74 species from 31 families were recorded. Reptiles, particularly squamates, dominated the assemblage, while amphibians accounted for a smaller proportion of the animals offered. More than half of the individuals were labeled as captive-bred, whereas only a small fraction were identified as imported or wild-caught; however, information on origin was absent for nearly half of the animals. Over 50% of the recorded species were listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, yet no visible information on legal or conservation status was provided at the point of sale. These findings indicate that inconsistent labeling limits transparency and informed decision-making by buyers.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42071908/

PMID 42041919 (2026, Biology) — Herping the African Continent: Alien Amphibians and Reptiles in Sub-Saharan Africa.. Abstract (opening): Introduction of species represents today one of the most important problems of nature conservation. Special attention is paid to alien vascular plants and vertebrates. In the Afrotropical Region (sub-Saharan Africa), however, there is a lack of comprehensive review of alien amphibians and reptiles. The presented paper constitutes an attempt to overview the status, distribution and threats posed by introduced herp species to sub-Saharan Africa since the second half of the 18th century. This review includes 21 amphibian (including 10 established) and 57 reptile (including 33 established) species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa. Most species introduced to sub-Saharan Africa which subsequently developed viable populations originated from the Malagasy (32%), Afrotropical (30%), and Oriental (27%) Regions. Most introductions were made in the last two decades, mostly as results of an increase in international trade and herp pet industry, especially in South Africa. Stowaway and pet trade are the most common pathways of introductions. Several factors determine the successful establishment of introduced alien herp species in sub-Saharan Africa, viz. behavioral and morphological traits, propagule pressure, climate and habitat overlap, and presence of potentially competing species. The impact of alien herps in sub-Saharan Africa on the local biodiversity is not well investigated. In comparison with other continents the number of introduced and established herp species in sub-Saharan Africa is relatively low. The Malagasy Region has the highest number of introduced herp species in sub-Saharan Africa.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42041919/

PMID 41712539 (2026, PLoS biology) — Neurofilament light chain may serve as a cross-species blood biomarker to assess aging and predict mortality.. Abstract (opening): Blood levels of neurofilament light chain (NfL) increase with age in healthy humans and have been shown to predict all-cause human mortality. To determine whether this relationship is conserved across species, we analyzed NfL in the blood of various animals. We observed age-related increases in NfL levels comparable to those seen in humans in mice, cats, dogs and horses. Longitudinal analysis of NfL trajectories in aged mice demonstrated that a faster rate of NfL increase predicts mortality. When comparing baseline NfL levels across 13 species, we found that those with lower baseline NfL levels tended to have longer lifespans; however, the collinearity between body size and life span complicates the interpretation of this finding. NfL was also robustly detected in blood of 39 additional mammalian species, as well as a few reptiles and birds, consistent with a conserved amino acid sequence of the NfL fragment in blood. Given the growing interest in NfL as a biomarker for neurological health and mortality in humans, our findings suggest that NfL may serve as a cross-species blood biomarker for assessing aging interventions and predicting mortality.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41712539/

PMID 42273264 (2026, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Health assessment and multipathogen surveillance of free-ranging snakes in the southeastern United States.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>Health assessments and pathogen surveys in wildlife are critical for gauging population-level risks. Recent concerns associated with ophidiomycosis, caused by the fungus Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo), have brought needed attention to snake conservation.<h4>Methods</h4>We evaluated the health of native snake species in the southeastern United States through physical examinations and multipathogen surveillance targeting Cryptosporidium spp., Hepatozoon spp., Mycoplasma spp., Oo, Raillietiella orientalis (Ro), Salmonella spp., and serpentoviruses. We hypothesized that apparent ophidiomycosis (skin lesions present and qPCR detection of Oo) would be positively associated with coinfection detection, and that pathogen detection prevalence would vary spatiotemporally and among snake species. We assessed pathogen and disease prevalence through monthly sampling from May 2022 to May 2024 (via full-body skin swabs, choanal swabs, cloacal swabs, blood, and fecal collection, and physical examinations) at wetland sites in Volusia County, Florida, and Jasper County, South Carolina. We opportunistically sampled snakes from a site in Athens-Clarke County, Georgia, and included diagnostic cases submitted to the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study from 2021 to 2024.<h4>Results</h4>In total, we sampled 509 individuals with 49 recaptures, representing 29 species. We included 61 carcasses, comprising 56 individuals (33 collected opportunistically) and five recaptures. We detected Salmonella enterica in 62.6% (306/489), Hepatozoon spp. in 53.4% (205/384), Mycoplasma spp. in 17.5% (78/445), Oo in 16.1% (82/508), and Cryptosporidium spp. in 2.0% (10/489). Detection of Ro was limited to snakes in Florida, with a detection prevalence of 12.7% (37/292). No serpentoviruses were detected (n = 447). Overall coinfection prevalence was 44.0% (219/498) and was strongly predictive of apparent ophidiomycosis (p < 0.0001). Mycoplasma spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. were nearly exclusively detected in snakes from Florida. Seasonal trends were seen in the detection of Mycoplasma spp. (p = 0.0075), Oo (p = 0.0475), and S. enterica (p = 0.0295). Detection of Oo (p = 0.0002) or Ro (p = 0.0200) was negatively associated with nutritional condition scores. Increased detection risks of Oo (p = 0.0479) and apparent ophidiomycosis (p = 0.0148) were observed primarily in pygmy rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius), supported by severe associated pathology, indicating increased conservation risks.<h4>Discussion</h4>This health assessment enhances understanding of infectious agents circulating in free-ranging snakes in the southeastern United States and establishes baseline parameters to inform conservation management.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42273264/

PMID 39924250 (2025, The Journal of veterinary medical science) — Treatment of esophagogastric intussusception due to cryptosporidiosis using paromomycin in a corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus).. Abstract (opening): A 3-year-old captive corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) was taken our veterinary clinic with a complaint of intermittent body swelling. Radiography revealed soft-tissue swelling, and ultrasonography confirmed intussusception of the digestive tract. Celiotomy revealed esophagogastric intussusception, which was subsequently corrected. Histopathological examination of gastric mucosal biopsy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from feces were revealed protozoan parasitism within the lesion and detected specific genes of Cryptosporidium spp. Oral administration of paromomycin at 100 mg/kg once daily for 10 days, subsequently twice weekly for 90 days under strict hygiene management were conducted as postoperative treatment. The snake was in good clinical health. PCR and ultrasonography for Cryptosporidium spp. 752 days after surgery showed no evidence of cryptosporidiosis.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39924250/

PMID 39841034 (2025, Parasitology) — Passage of Angiostrongylus cantonensis through the trophic web: an experimental study on reptiles.. Abstract (opening): The rat lungworm Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a zoonotic metastrongyloid nematode, currently considered an emerging pathogen approaching Europe. In tropics and subtropics, it is an important food-borne neurotropic parasite of medical and veterinary importance. Sources of infection for mammals and birds include gastropod intermediate hosts and poikilothermic vertebrates (paratenic hosts). To evaluate the relevance of reptiles in the rat lungworm circulation, we performed an experimental series focused on long-term survival of third stage larvae (L3) of A. cantonensis in reptiles and potential of saurians to serve as a source of infection for further hosts. Twenty leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius) were infected with varying doses of L3 (100, 1000, 10 000 larvae per animal). Live L3 were collected from all infected geckos (mostly in musculature and liver) euthanized 1-6 months after the infection and were proven to be infective for Wistar rats (definitive hosts). Three sacrificed geckos were subsequently fed to three corn snakes (Pantheropis guttatus) to test hypothesis of L3 infectivity for predators positioned higher in the food chain. Snakes were euthanized 1 month post-infection and live L3 were detected predominantly in the intestinal wall. The animals remained clinically healthy throughout the study. No reptiles showed significant changes in haematological and biochemical blood parameters, though elevated CK and GLDH were observed in most geckos in the group receiving higher infectious dose. This study highlights the significant potential of reptiles to play a crucial role in the circulation of metastrongyloid nematodes in food web and in their transmission to humans.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39841034/

PMID 41600686 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Biochemical and Hepatic Determinants of Reproductive Failure in Reptiles: A Review of Dystocia Pathophysiology and Management.. Abstract (opening): Dystocia represents a multifactorial and clinically significant reproductive disorder affecting a broad spectrum of reptilian species. Commonly resulting from prolonged vitellogenesis, endocrine disruption, or hepatic lipidosis, dystocia is often exacerbated by suboptimal husbandry or concurrent disease. This review critically evaluates the etiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic interventions associated with this condition. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between metabolic exhaustion and hepatic compromise, which may lower the threshold for surgical intervention. The efficacy and limitations of oxytocin-based protocols are discussed in the context of hormonal receptor variability and response attenuation. Advanced diagnostic modalities, including ultrasonography, radiography/CT, and biochemical profiling, are reviewed for their utility in case stratification. Finally, surgical management options are considered for cases refractory to medical treatment, with attention paid to timing, anesthetic risk, and post-operative care. Collectively, this synthesis aims to inform evidence-based clinical decision-making and promote improved standards of care in reptile reproductive medicine.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/

PMID 39530499 (2025, Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology) — Effects of snake fungal disease (ophidiomycosis) on the skin microbiome across two major experimental scales.. Abstract (opening): Emerging infectious diseases are increasingly recognized as a significant threat to global biodiversity conservation. Elucidating the relationship between pathogens and the host microbiome could lead to novel approaches for mitigating disease impacts. Pathogens can alter the host microbiome by inducing dysbiosis, an ecological state characterized by a reduction in bacterial alpha diversity, an increase in pathobionts, or a shift in beta diversity. We used the snake fungal disease (SFD; ophidiomycosis), system to examine how an emerging pathogen may induce dysbiosis across two experimental scales. We used quantitative polymerase chain reaction, bacterial amplicon sequencing, and a deep learning neural network to characterize the skin microbiome of free-ranging snakes across a broad phylogenetic and spatial extent. Habitat suitability models were used to find variables associated with fungal presence on the landscape. We also conducted a laboratory study of northern watersnakes to examine temporal changes in the skin microbiome following inoculation with Ophidiomyces ophidiicola. Patterns characteristic of dysbiosis were found at both scales, as were nonlinear changes in alpha and alterations in beta diversity, although structural-level and dispersion changes differed between field and laboratory contexts. The neural network was far more accurate (99.8% positive predictive value [PPV]) in predicting disease state than other analytic techniques (36.4% PPV). The genus Pseudomonas was characteristic of disease-negative microbiomes, whereas, positive snakes were characterized by the pathobionts Chryseobacterium, Paracoccus, and Sphingobacterium. Geographic regions suitable for O. ophidiicola had high pathogen loads (>0.66 maximum sensitivity + specificity). We found that pathogen-induced dysbiosis of the microbiome followed predictable trends, that disease state could be classified with neural network analyses, and that habitat suitability models predicted habitat for the SFD pathogen.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39530499/

PMID 39123748 (2024, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland's Approach to Assessing and Promoting Animal Welfare in Collaboration with Universities.. Abstract (opening): Good zoos have four aims-to conserve species, educate the public, engage in research, and provide recreation-all of which can only be achieved when underpinned by high animal welfare standards. In this paper, we share the approach that The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland's (RZSS) Edinburgh Zoo and Highland Wildlife Park take to animal welfare. We highlight the role that animal welfare research, in collaboration with universities, has had in enabling the zoo to take an evidence-based approach to welfare and to put findings into practice. We share the collaborative process through which we developed and piloted the current animal welfare assessment tools, how they were validated, and how they were tested for reliability as part of a long-term collaboration between the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland and the University of Stirling: (1) the RZSS Welfare Assessment Tool, a 50-question animal welfare assessment adapted from the British and Irish Association of Zoos and Aquariums (BIAZA) Toolkit; and (2) the Stirling Toolkit, a package of evidence-based resources for behavioural-data collection. Our aim is to facilitate standardised, evidence-based approaches to assessing animal welfare which, when finalised, can be used collaboratively across zoos.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39123748/

PMID 39628865 (2024, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Simplifying the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid for enhanced accessibility.. Abstract (opening): Ensuring animal welfare is essential for both the well-being of zoo animals and the effective management of zoological facilities. This study introduces the Simplified Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (S-AWAG), a streamlined adaptation of the original AWAG framework that integrates the Five Domains Model with an observation-based approach. Designed for non-expert users, S-AWAG focuses on easily observable welfare indicators-such as health and environmental conditions-making it particularly suitable for small, private zoos, including petting zoos, roadside zoos, indoor zoos, and animal cafés. We conducted welfare assessments on 304 animals from 11 species across nine zoos in South Korea. The results revealed significant differences in welfare standards between accredited and non-accredited zoos, with accredited facilities consistently demonstrating better welfare conditions (p < 0.05). The tool exhibited high inter-rater reliability (IRR = 0.839), confirming its consistency across assessors with varying levels of expertise and ensuring reliable and accurate results. Pearson correlation analysis identified strong positive associations between health and environmental factors, reinforcing the comprehensive nature of the tool's evaluation approach. With its user-friendly, efficient, and adaptable design, S-AWAG has the potential to improve animal welfare standards not only in South Korea but also globally, particularly in smaller, resource-constrained facilities.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39628865/

PMID 39504334 (2024, PloS one) — Multifocal cutaneous neoplastic vascular proliferations in a rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria) collection with boid inclusion body disease.. Abstract (opening): Reports on neoplastic processes in snakes are sparse regardless of their location, origin or behavior. Here, we describe the occurrence of multifocal cutaneous neoplastic processes consistent with hemangioma and hemangioendothelioma, with a differential diagnosis of angiomatosis, in a colony of native Brazilian rainbow boas (Epicrates cenchria) which also included animals affected by boid inclusion body disease (BIBD). Thirteen snakes were affected; seven of these had been introduced from other Brazilian sites years earlier, the others had been bred in house but were not offspring of knowingly affected animals. The breeding regime allowed contact between all female and male animals over the years. The cutaneous lesions were first observed over eight years ago, with additional cases detected during the three following years, but no new cases in the last five years. Two affected animals were subjected to a post mortem examination and were found to suffer from peliosis hepatis as one of the additional pathological changes. BIBD was confirmed in five of the eight examined animals, by histology, immunohistology for reptarenavirus nucleoprotein, and multiplex RT-PCR targeting the reptarenavirus S segment. Reptarenavirus infection was also detected in cells in the cutaneous neoplastic processes. PCRs for Bartonella henselae and B. quintana as well as bacterial DNA in general, performed on a pool of six skin lesions, yielded negative results, ruling out ongoing bacterial infection, like bacillary angiomatosis in humans, of the lesions. The results hint towards an association of reptarenavirus infection and BIBD with neoplastic processes which is worth further investigations.

Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39504334/

Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_corn_snake_nutrition_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).

Evidence cluster — Corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)

Evidence: Corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) nutrition

Studies

Sources

Machine access