Evidence: Ball python (Python regius) toxicology
Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for Python regius. The cluster returns 12 representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.
Studies
- PMID 41183498 (2026, Genetics) — Candidate genes underlying hypomelanistic morphs in squamate reptiles.. Abstract (opening): Skin coloration is crucial for the survival of animals and ranges from spectacular colorful displays used to attract a mate to cryptic camouflage used to avoid predators. Among the 3 main types of chromatophores, melanophores are the most widespread in vertebrates and can set the skin tone by the amount of melanin they produce and store in dedicated vesicles, the melanosomes. Mutations associated with melanophore differentiation and maturation result in hypomelanistic and amelanistic phenotypes, both extensively studied in mammals but less so in snakes and lizards. Here, we characterize at the genomic, transcriptomic, and histological level, the Hypomelanistic corn snake morph and 3 hypomelanistic leopard gecko morphs. To minimize bias in studying leopard gecko color morphs, we first assembled a chromosome-level genome from a wild-type individual in terms of coloration. We propose that candidate mutations in 3 melanogenesis factors generate these phenotypes: (i) tyrosinase (TYR), an essential enzyme for melanin synthesis, (ii) NCKX5 (SLC24A5), an ion exchanger involved in melanosome maturation, and (iii) the P protein (OCA2), a transmembrane transporter for tyrosine. Our extended bulk RNA sequencing analyses show that additional pigmentation-related genes, affecting melanin production, melanosome motility, and melanophore migration, are dysregulated in the embryonic skin of the mutated animals. This observation highlights the likely associations among the corresponding pathways and is in line with our electron microscopy imaging results. Indeed, the subcellular structure of melanophores is uniquely altered at each of the 4 morphs and likely reflects a multigenic effect. These findings demonstrate that conserved pigmentation genes can produce species-specific effects, underscoring the modular nature of skin coloration in vertebrates. Our work establishes reptiles as comparative models for studying pigment cell biology and reveals evolutionary flexibility in the genetic regulation of melanogenesis.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41183498/
- PMID 41681482 (2026, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — Use of Animal-Derived Products for Medicinal and Belief-Based Purposes in Urban Cities of Southwestern Nigeria: A One Health Perspective.. Abstract (opening): Zootherapy is a significant component of traditional medicine in many parts of the world. This study investigated the therapeutic and belief-based use of wildlife in urban settings in Southwest Nigeria, assessing its potential implications for One Health. We used semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and participant observations to gain insights into the practices, practitioners' knowledge, motivations, and animal species used. Also, we searched the published literature and the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species for zoonotic pathogens and the conservation statuses of the reported animal species. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were used to analyze the data. Results revealed 53 practices involving 41 species, with occasional importation of animal parts to meet demand. Practitioners' limited awareness of zoonotic risks, coupled with income generation and deeply rooted traditional beliefs, sustained these practices, further fueled by the dynamics of urban wild meat trade. The majority (95%) of species reported were reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens, with 44% in the vulnerable, near-threatened, endangered, or critically endangered class. The use of animal-derived products for medicinal and spiritual purposes may constitute a plausible pathway for potential zoonotic spillovers, transboundary animal diseases (TADs), decline in wildlife resources, and ecological imbalance. We recommend intensified monitoring, risk communication, awareness programs, and the adoption of sustainable alternatives to mitigate the negative impacts of these practices in Nigeria and beyond.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41681482/
- PMID 39223842 (2026, Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007)) — Bioimaging of sense organs and the central nervous system in extant fishes and reptiles in situ: A review.. Abstract (opening): Bioimaging is changing the field of sensory biology, especially for taxa that are lesser-known, rare, and logistically difficult to source. When integrated with traditional neurobiological approaches, developing an archival, digital repository of morphological images can offer the opportunity to improve our understanding of whole neural systems without the issues of surgical intervention and negate the risk of damage and artefactual interpretation. This review focuses on current approaches to bioimaging the peripheral (sense organs) and central (brain) nervous systems in extant fishes (cartilaginous and bony) and non-avian reptiles in situ. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), micro-computed tomography (μCT), both super-resolution track density imaging and diffusion tensor-based imaging, and a range of other new technological advances are presented, together with novel approaches in optimizing both contrast and resolution, for developing detailed neuroanatomical atlases and enhancing comparative analyses of museum specimens. For MRI, tissue preparation, including choice of fixative, impacts tissue MR responses, where both resolving power and signal-to-noise ratio improve as field strength increases. Time in fixative, concentration of contrast agent, and duration of immersion in the contrast agent can also significantly affect relaxation times, and thus image quality. For μCT, the use of contrast-enhancing stains (iodine-, non-iodine-, or nanoparticle-based) is critical, where the type of fixative used, and the concentration of stain and duration of staining time often require species-specific optimization. Advanced reconstruction algorithms to reduce noise and artifacts and post-processing techniques, such as deconvolution and filtering, are now being used to improve image quality and resolution.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39223842/
- PMID 42032687 (2026, BMC veterinary research) — Species-specific variations in corticosterone concentrations in captive snake shed skins: implications for housing systems and welfare.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>Captive reptiles may experience stress related to environmental conditions, and housing design is considered a key factor influencing their welfare. This study assessed corticosterone concentrations in shed skins as a non-invasive biomarker of chronic stress in three commonly kept snake species-Boa imperator, Python regius, and Pantherophis guttatus-maintained either in low-stimulus rack systems or enriched terraria. Shed skins were collected from privately owned snakes and from a breeders, prepared following standardized protocols, and analyzed using ELISA assays. Non-parametric statistical methods (Mann-Whitney U tests) were applied due to non-normal data distribution.<h4>Results</h4>Variation in corticosterone concentrations was observed among the studied species, with higher values recorded in P. guttatus compared to B. imperator and P. regius. The effects of housing conditions differed between species. In P. regius, individuals kept in enriched terraria exhibited higher corticosterone concentrations than those housed in rack systems, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in P. guttatus, where snakes maintained in rack systems showed elevated corticosterone levels. No clear housing-related differences were observed in B. imperator. Species-specific relationships between enclosure volume and corticosterone concentration were identified, with positive associations in P. regius, negative associations in P. guttatus, and no apparent relationship in B. imperator.<h4>Conclusions</h4>The study indicates interspecific variation in corticosterone deposition in snake shed skin and demonstrates that the relationship between housing conditions and corticosterone levels is species-specific. More active species, such as P. guttatus, may be more sensitive to spatial restriction and limited environmental complexity, whereas less active species, such as P. regius and B. imperator, may respond differently to housing conditions. These findings underscore the importance of species-tailored welfare guidelines, suggesting that enclosure design and enrichment strategies should be adapted to the behavioural ecology and physiological characteristics of individual snake species rather than applied uniformly across taxa.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42032687/
- PMID 41927739 (2026, Scientific reports) — New host record of Amblyomma pakhtunensis on the Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) with detection of a distinct Borrelia lineage.. Abstract (opening): Pangolins are mammals of the order Pholidota, with most species listed as endangered or critically endangered. They are distributed in both Asia and Africa, with the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) found in South Asia, including Pakistan. The tick genus Amblyomma, in the family Ixodidae, is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions and infests a variety of terrestrial and semi terrestrial vertebrates. The bacterial genus Borrelia is Gram-negative and consists of three main groups, one of which is mainly linked to reptiles, some birds, and mammals. This study focuses on investigating the Indian pangolin as a potential host for Amblyomma pakhtunensis, a recently described tick species previously reported only on monitor lizards and with no known microbial associations. It also aims to determine whether ticks from pangolins contain Borrelia species and assesses their phylogenetic relationships. Ticks collected from a pangolin were morphologically identified as A. pakhtunensis. DNA from a subset of ticks was extracted to confirm their molecular identity and to detect Borrelia spp. in these ticks using conventional PCR. For the former, a partial fragment of tick 16S rRNA was targeted, while for the latter, partial fragments of the Borrelia 16S rRNA, flaB, and glpQ genes were targeted for amplification. A single live pangolin, conventionally identified as M. crassicaudata, was found. Twenty‑seven ticks were collected (16 males, 11 females), all morphologically identified as A. pakhtunensis. BLAST analysis of A. pakhtunensis 16S rDNA sequence showed 99.75% identity with the same tick species. BLAST analysis of Borrelia 16S rDNA and flaB sequences revealed highest identities of 99.25% and 95.91%, respectively, with Candidatus Borrelia javanense. The overall Borrelia infection rate was 50% (5/10), with infections detected in 4/5 female ticks and 1/5 male tick. In both 16S rDNA and flaB based phylogenetic analyses, the detected Borrelia species clustered with Candidatus B. javanense from China. In addition to expanding the vertebrate host diversity of A. pakhtunensis, this study also expands knowledge of the third group of Borrelia by extending their known vertebrate host range and genetic diversity. This study can enhance our understanding of the regional epidemiology of tick-borne diseases and may specifically aid pangolin conservation strategies by taking into account the control of ticks and their associated pathogens.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41927739/
- PMID 41123193 (2025, Journal of the American Chemical Society) — Uric Acid Monohydrate Nanocrystals: An Adaptable Platform for Nitrogen and Salt Management in Reptiles.. Abstract (opening): Both avian and nonavian reptiles excrete excess nitrogen in solid form─colloquially termed "urates"─as an evolutionary adaptation that aids in water conservation. Yet, there are many open questions regarding the composition, structure, and assembly of these biogenic materials. Here, analyses of urate excretions from ball python (<i>Python regius</i>) and 20 other reptile species reveal a clever and highly adaptable system employed to handle both nitrogenous waste and salts. Primitive species excrete urates consisting of 1-10 μm microspheres of turbostratic uric acid monohydrate (UAM) nanocrystals. The nanocrystals' high surface area and ionizable nature provides a platform to coeliminate substoichiometric concentrations of various salts through surface-ion pairing. In contrast, the granular urates produced by species from more advanced snake lineages are phase mixtures consisting of predominantly ammonium urate hydrate (AUH) and smaller amounts of other crystalline forms. Identification of microspheres as a minor but highly soluble component of these excretions suggests their likely role as reactive precursors to AUH, a hypothesis supported by in vitro experiments. Importantly, this points to a previously unrecognized physiologic function of uric acid, namely the ability to sequester ammonia by transforming it into a solid. The potential implications of this function in other species are discussed.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41123193/
- PMID 41600686 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Biochemical and Hepatic Determinants of Reproductive Failure in Reptiles: A Review of Dystocia Pathophysiology and Management.. Abstract (opening): Dystocia represents a multifactorial and clinically significant reproductive disorder affecting a broad spectrum of reptilian species. Commonly resulting from prolonged vitellogenesis, endocrine disruption, or hepatic lipidosis, dystocia is often exacerbated by suboptimal husbandry or concurrent disease. This review critically evaluates the etiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic interventions associated with this condition. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between metabolic exhaustion and hepatic compromise, which may lower the threshold for surgical intervention. The efficacy and limitations of oxytocin-based protocols are discussed in the context of hormonal receptor variability and response attenuation. Advanced diagnostic modalities, including ultrasonography, radiography/CT, and biochemical profiling, are reviewed for their utility in case stratification. Finally, surgical management options are considered for cases refractory to medical treatment, with attention paid to timing, anesthetic risk, and post-operative care. Collectively, this synthesis aims to inform evidence-based clinical decision-making and promote improved standards of care in reptile reproductive medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/
- PMID 41302060 (2025, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — The Use of Platelet-Rich Plasma in Wildlife Veterinary Medicine.. Abstract (opening): Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), an autologous blood product concentrated with platelets and their associated growth factors, has been the subject of increasing investigation in veterinary medicine. Although it is widely used in domestic species, its use in wildlife is less well-explored, despite its potential to address complicated clinical scenarios such as traumatic injuries, chronic wounds, and orthopaedic conditions, which are frequently encountered in wild animals under human care. Expanding the evidence base for PRP in non-domestic species could therefore significantly advance clinical outcomes in rehabilitation, zoo medicine, and conservation initiatives. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and describe the existing evidence on the clinical use of PRP in wildlife. This included details on protocols, outcomes, species-specific considerations, and knowledge that is still missing. A literature search was performed using the databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to August 2025. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported on the preparation, application, or clinical outcomes of PRP in non-domestic animal species. This included case reports, research articles, and reviews. A total of 65 studies were finally included. The data were classified by species group (e.g., reptiles, birds, mammals) and clinical application (e.g., wound healing, orthopaedics, chronic disease management). The search identified a limited but growing body of evidence, primarily consisting of case reports and small-scale experimental studies. The application of PRP was found to have beneficial effects on wound closure, inflammation reduction, and enhanced tissue regeneration across multiple taxa. However, substantial variation existed across protocols in platelet concentration, activation methods, and application routes across protocols. Species-specific challenges, such as limited blood volume and logistical constraints in wildlife settings, were frequently noted. Current evidence suggests that PRP is a promising therapeutic tool in wildlife medicine; however, the development of standardised methodologies and the implementation of controlled clinical trials remain urgently needed. Widening its use could not only enhance animal welfare but also reinforce conservation initiatives and advance One Health strategies by generating insights with direct relevance to human medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41302060/
- PMID 40558139 (2025, Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland)) — Antibacterial Activity of Some Essential Oils/Herbal Extracts Against Bacteria Isolated from Ball Pythons (<i>Python regius</i>) with Respiratory Infections.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>Respiratory diseases are among the main causes of morbidity and mortality in captive reptiles. In Romania, pneumonia is a frequently observed illness affecting pet reptiles. Key factors contributing to the high incidence of pneumonia include inadequate animal husbandry, poor nutrition, and insufficient hygiene practices. Bacteria may act as primary pathogens or as facilitators of disease severity.<h4>Methods</h4>This study investigates bacterial strains from multiple genera and species (<i>Chryseobacterium</i> (<i>C.</i>) <i>indologenes</i>, <i>Staphylococcus</i> (<i>S.</i>) <i>epidermidis</i>, <i>Escherichia</i> (<i>E.</i>) <i>coli</i>, and <i>Pseudomonas</i> (<i>P.</i>) <i>aeruginoasa</i>) from six ball pythons regarding their antibiotic susceptibility and the effect of essential oils. Bacteria were isolated from the lower respiratory tract, displaying clinical signs of pneumonia. All isolates were tested with essential oils (lemongrass, oregano, rosemary, and sage) and a grapefruit seed extract (GSE) at different dilutions.<h4>Results</h4>The incidence of <i>Chryseobacterium indologenes</i> was highest (3 isolates/12 samples, 25%), followed by <i>E. coli</i> and <i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i> (2/12 each, 16.6%), and <i>Pseudomonas aeruginoasa</i> (1/12, 8.3%). Resistance profiling to different antibiotic classes revealed that all isolates (eight) were resistant to multiple antibiotics tested by us. All isolates were resistant to β-lactams and fluoroquinolones. One strain of <i>E. coli</i> exhibited intermediate resistance to quinolone and penicillin. All strains were categorized as multidrug-resistant. GSE showed antibacterial activity against all isolates.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Wanting to deepen our understanding of the microorganisms that can infect ball pythons and recognizing that all isolated bacteria have zoonotic potential, this paper highlights some common issues faced by exotic animal owners and suggests that treatments should also include the use of essential oils.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40558139/
- PMID 40747269 (2025, Frontiers in neuroanatomy) — The relative withdrawal of GFAP-An essential component of brain evolution.. Abstract (opening): The glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is the principal intermediate filament protein and histochemical marker for astroglia. It appears contradictory that there are extended GFAP-poor or even GFAP-free areas in the brains of various vertebrate clades: cartilaginous and ray-finned fishes, and amniotes. The "Relevant Subsections: Extended GFAP-free areas in various vertebrates" section in this study reviews our GFAP mapping studies on the brains of 58 species within these clades, as well as mappings from other authors, and demonstrates that these areas appeared independently from one another in the more advanced groups of different clades; it raises the supposition that the lack of GFAP is an apomorphic phenomenon. The GFAP expression has withdrawn mainly relatively: the GFAP-immunonegative areas increased more than the immunopositive ones. Primarily, regions that expanded and increased in complexity during evolution lack GFAP immunopositivity (except for their perivascular glia). The absence of GFAP expression, however, does not indicate the lack of astroglia. In the areas immunonegative to GFAP, astrocytes were visualized using other markers, such as glutamine synthetase or S-100 protein. In birds and mammals, lesions induced GFAP expression in these areas. It shows that the ability to express GFAP is not lost but has become facultative. These data suggest that the lack of GFAP production may provide an evolutionary advantage. The "Discussion" section relates the GFAP "withdrawal" to other steps of evolution: the increasing complexity and thickening of the brain wall, as well as the appearance of the astrocytes, particularly protoplasmic astrocytes, and then examines the proposed evolutionary advantages and disadvantages of the absence of GFAP. The role of the relative "withdrawal" of GFAP expression in brain evolution remains to be definitively answered. The most probable candidates may include the absence of synthesizing an unnecessary protein, improved adaptation of astrocytes to the demands of neurons, and an increased capacity for synaptic plasticity. In contrast, one must consider that the withdrawal of GFAP may not be a primary phenomenon but rather a consequence of the evolution of neural networks.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40747269/
- PMID 39013796 (2025, Veterinary ophthalmology) — Assessment of visual acuity in Python regius using optokinetic response.. Abstract (opening): Snakes are known for their unique abilities including infrared reception and their heavy reliance on heat sensors and vibrations. Infrared reception of snakes has gone under immense investigation; however, there have been very few studies that elaborate on their capacity to see. The goal of this study is to determine visual acuity of ball pythons (Python regius) by observing their optokinetic response (OKR). The OKR is a series of rapid saccadic and smooth pursuit movements of the eyes. It has been used for decades to determine visual acuity in multiple species such as humans, rats, and other nonmammalian species such as zebrafish and box turtles. Past studies have discovered that birds, reptiles, and amphibians achieve gaze stabilization by head and body movements, whereas in mammals and fish, gaze stabilization is conducted by eye movements. In this study, ball pythons were placed in a clear tube in a dark room, and a spinning black and white grating was projected in front of them. The size, direction, and velocity of the grating was manipulated which allowed their visual acuity to be determined. Our hypothesis is that P. regius would have a poor OKR response with low visual acuity due to their heavy reliance on other senses. Results show that P. regius does respond to visual stimuli, shows ocular saccadic movement in the direction of their stimuli, and has a relatively poor visual acuity when compared to other previously studied reptiles.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39013796/
- PMID 40122832 (2025, Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine) — Animals traded for traditional medicine in Ghana: their zootherapeutic uses and implications for biodiversity conservation.. Abstract (opening): The use of animals for zootherapeutic purposes has been reported worldwide, and with the patronage of complementary and alternative medicines being on the ascendency, the trade and use of animal parts will only escalate. Many more of these animals used in traditional medicine will be pushed to extinction if policies for their sustainable use and conservation are not formulated. There have been studies across the world which assessed the trade and use of animals in traditional medicine including Ghana. However, all previous Ghanaian studies were conducted in a few specific cities. It therefore makes it imperative for a nationwide study which would provide more comprehensive information on the trade and use of animals in traditional medicine and its conservation implications. Using direct observation and semi-structured questionnaires, data were collected from 133 vendors of animal parts used in traditional medicines in 48 markets located across all 16 administrative regions of Ghana. Analysis of the data showed that the trade in wild animal parts for traditional medicine was more prevalent in the urban centres of Ghana. Overall, 75 identifiable animal species were traded on Ghanaian traditional medicine markets. Using their relative frequency of citation values, chameleons (Chamaeleo spp.; 0.81), lions (Panthera leo; 0.81) and the West African crocodile (Crocodylus suchus; 0.67) were the most commonly traded animals in Ghana. Majority of the vendors (59.1%) indicated that their clients use the animal parts for medicinal purposes mainly for skin diseases, epilepsy and fractures, while clients of 28.2% of the vendors use the animal parts for spiritual or mystical purposes, such as protection against spiritual attacks, spiritual healing and money rituals. Up to 54.2% of the animals were classified as Least Concern by IUCN, 14.7% were threatened, with 51.2% of CITES-listed ones experiencing a decreasing population trend. This study also found that 68.5% of the traded animal species are not listed on CITES, but among those listed, 69.6% are classified under Appendix II. Considering the level of representation of animals of conservation concerns, the harvesting and trade of animal parts for traditional medicine must be regulated. This call is even more urgent since 40.0% of the top ten traded animals are mammals; a class of animals with long gestation periods and are not prolific breeders.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40122832/
Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_ball_python_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).