Evidence: Ball python (Python regius) clinical cases
Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered clinical case reports and case series for Python regius. The cluster returns 12 representative clinical cases with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each case is traceable by PMID.
Studies
- PMID 41317138 (2026, Veterinary medicine and science) — Detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia duodenalis in Reptiles in Thailand.. Abstract (opening): Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are significant intestinal protozoan parasites affecting humans and animals worldwide. These infections are transmitted through the faecal-oral route, by contaminated water, food or close contact with infected hosts. The zoonotic risk of transmission from reptiles is considered low; yet, limited research exists regarding Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in these animals. This study investigated the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in reptile faecal samples from a breeding farm in the Chonburi Province, Eastern Thailand. The test population included 363 iguanas, 50 tortoises, 79 bearded dragons and nine snakes. DNA extraction from faecal samples was performed, followed by nested PCR for Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis, and all positive samples were sequenced for molecular characterisation. Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis were detected in 13 and 25 out of 501 faecal samples, respectively. Specifically, seven of 363 iguana samples and six of 79 bearded dragon samples tested positive for Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium avium was found in 11 samples, and one sample revealed Cryptosporidium serpentis; the remaining sample could not be identified at the species level. For G. duodenalis, 15 of 363 iguanas tested positive, along with six of 79 bearded dragons, two of 50 tortoises and two of nine snakes. Only G. duodenalis assemblage B was identified in positive samples. This study provides epidemiological information on the infection rate and distribution of species of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in a breeding reptile farm in Chonburi Province, Eastern Thailand, and the findings are discussed in the context of the scientific literature. SUMMARY: This study represents one of the largest surveys on Cryptosporidium and Giardia duodenalis in reptiles. Cryptosporidium avium, typically associated with avian hosts, was the predominant Cryptosporidium species identified in iguanas and bearded dragons. Giardia duodenalis assemblage B, known for its zoonotic potential, was the primary assemblage found in iguanas.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41317138/
- PMID 40726532 (2025, Veterinary research forum : an international quarterly journal) — First case of serpentovirus infection in a ball python (<i>Python regius</i>) in Thailand: a case report with molecular characterization.. Abstract (opening): The pet snake industry in Thailand has seen a significant rise in popularity, with the ball python (<i>Python regius</i>) becoming a frequently kept species. However, respiratory disease poses a notable health concern, and various viral pathogens, including serpentoviruses (formerly classified as nidoviruses), have been implicated. While serpentovirus infections have been reported globally in diverse snake species, no documented cases had previously been identified in Thailand. This case report describes a 9-month-old ball python presenting to the Reptile Science Clinic at the Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute in Bangkok, Thailand, with respiratory distress and emaciation. Despite veterinary intervention, the snake succumbed to the infection within two weeks. Post-mortem examination revealed marked mucus accumulation within the oral cavity and necrotic oral mucosa. Histopathological analysis demonstrated severe catarrhal pneumonia. Molecular investigations confirmed the presence of serpentovirus in the lung tissue of the affected python, with subsequent sequence analysis revealing close homology to known serpentoviruses in ball pythons. This report documents the first confirmed case of serpentovirus infection in a pet snake in Thailand.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40726532/
- PMID 41031330 (2025, Medical mycology case reports) — <i>Nannizziopsis arthrosporioides</i> infection mimicking ophidiomycosis in ball pythons (<i>Python regius</i>).. Abstract (opening): A wild caught snake presented with progressive dermatopathy and was euthanized due to a clinical suspicion for ophiomycosis. Over the next 7 days, six additional ball pythons, maintained in the same room but in separate cages from the index case developed similar progressive dermatomycoses and were euthanized. Histopathologic evaluation showed dermal granulomas with intralesional fungi and DNA from the lesions clustered in a monophyletic group with other isolates of <i>N. athrosporioides</i>. Colony and microscopic morphology of fungus from these cases matched published descriptions of <i>N. arthrosporioides</i>. While ophidiomycosis may be a major differential for dermatomycosis in snakes, molecular confirmation should be pursued, as additional fungi may cause similar lesions in this taxon.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41031330/
- PMID 40168957 (2025, Cells, tissues, organs) — Anatomy, Histology, Aetiology, Development and Functions of Cartilago Cordis: A Systematic Review.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>The cartilago cordis is a structure present within the cardiac skeleton of some, but not all, vertebrate species. This systematic review compared the presence, structure, and function of the cartilago cordis from published works covering all vertebrate species.<h4>Methods</h4>Literature searches were conducted to obtain information relating to the anatomical location, morphology, prevalence, number of structures, development, and function.<h4>Results</h4>The cartilago cordis was most commonly composed of hyaline cartilage but its location within the cardiac skeleton, anatomical, and histological structure varied between species. The cartilago cordis has not been documented in every vertebrate species, or every individual within each species, but it is present in 68 vertebrates including an amphibian, and some mammals, reptiles, and birds. The function of the cartilago cordis is unknown, but theories have ranged from an adaptive mechanism to support cardiac tissue through to roles in conduction and contraction, especially in areas of high mechanical stress. Possible links between the presence of a cartilago cordis and cardiac pathologies were also identified.<h4>Conclusion</h4>The cartilago cordis varied in prevalence, structure, and location; further research is required to understand the function and development. In addition, it is possible there are more vertebrate species containing cartilago cordis than presently known about given its varying prevalence and sometimes small size.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40168957/
- PMID 41600686 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Biochemical and Hepatic Determinants of Reproductive Failure in Reptiles: A Review of Dystocia Pathophysiology and Management.. Abstract (opening): Dystocia represents a multifactorial and clinically significant reproductive disorder affecting a broad spectrum of reptilian species. Commonly resulting from prolonged vitellogenesis, endocrine disruption, or hepatic lipidosis, dystocia is often exacerbated by suboptimal husbandry or concurrent disease. This review critically evaluates the etiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic interventions associated with this condition. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between metabolic exhaustion and hepatic compromise, which may lower the threshold for surgical intervention. The efficacy and limitations of oxytocin-based protocols are discussed in the context of hormonal receptor variability and response attenuation. Advanced diagnostic modalities, including ultrasonography, radiography/CT, and biochemical profiling, are reviewed for their utility in case stratification. Finally, surgical management options are considered for cases refractory to medical treatment, with attention paid to timing, anesthetic risk, and post-operative care. Collectively, this synthesis aims to inform evidence-based clinical decision-making and promote improved standards of care in reptile reproductive medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/
- PMID 41302060 (2025, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — The Use of Platelet-Rich Plasma in Wildlife Veterinary Medicine.. Abstract (opening): Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), an autologous blood product concentrated with platelets and their associated growth factors, has been the subject of increasing investigation in veterinary medicine. Although it is widely used in domestic species, its use in wildlife is less well-explored, despite its potential to address complicated clinical scenarios such as traumatic injuries, chronic wounds, and orthopaedic conditions, which are frequently encountered in wild animals under human care. Expanding the evidence base for PRP in non-domestic species could therefore significantly advance clinical outcomes in rehabilitation, zoo medicine, and conservation initiatives. The aim of this scoping review was to identify and describe the existing evidence on the clinical use of PRP in wildlife. This included details on protocols, outcomes, species-specific considerations, and knowledge that is still missing. A literature search was performed using the databases PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to August 2025. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported on the preparation, application, or clinical outcomes of PRP in non-domestic animal species. This included case reports, research articles, and reviews. A total of 65 studies were finally included. The data were classified by species group (e.g., reptiles, birds, mammals) and clinical application (e.g., wound healing, orthopaedics, chronic disease management). The search identified a limited but growing body of evidence, primarily consisting of case reports and small-scale experimental studies. The application of PRP was found to have beneficial effects on wound closure, inflammation reduction, and enhanced tissue regeneration across multiple taxa. However, substantial variation existed across protocols in platelet concentration, activation methods, and application routes across protocols. Species-specific challenges, such as limited blood volume and logistical constraints in wildlife settings, were frequently noted. Current evidence suggests that PRP is a promising therapeutic tool in wildlife medicine; however, the development of standardised methodologies and the implementation of controlled clinical trials remain urgently needed. Widening its use could not only enhance animal welfare but also reinforce conservation initiatives and advance One Health strategies by generating insights with direct relevance to human medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41302060/
- PMID 40558139 (2025, Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland)) — Antibacterial Activity of Some Essential Oils/Herbal Extracts Against Bacteria Isolated from Ball Pythons (<i>Python regius</i>) with Respiratory Infections.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>Respiratory diseases are among the main causes of morbidity and mortality in captive reptiles. In Romania, pneumonia is a frequently observed illness affecting pet reptiles. Key factors contributing to the high incidence of pneumonia include inadequate animal husbandry, poor nutrition, and insufficient hygiene practices. Bacteria may act as primary pathogens or as facilitators of disease severity.<h4>Methods</h4>This study investigates bacterial strains from multiple genera and species (<i>Chryseobacterium</i> (<i>C.</i>) <i>indologenes</i>, <i>Staphylococcus</i> (<i>S.</i>) <i>epidermidis</i>, <i>Escherichia</i> (<i>E.</i>) <i>coli</i>, and <i>Pseudomonas</i> (<i>P.</i>) <i>aeruginoasa</i>) from six ball pythons regarding their antibiotic susceptibility and the effect of essential oils. Bacteria were isolated from the lower respiratory tract, displaying clinical signs of pneumonia. All isolates were tested with essential oils (lemongrass, oregano, rosemary, and sage) and a grapefruit seed extract (GSE) at different dilutions.<h4>Results</h4>The incidence of <i>Chryseobacterium indologenes</i> was highest (3 isolates/12 samples, 25%), followed by <i>E. coli</i> and <i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i> (2/12 each, 16.6%), and <i>Pseudomonas aeruginoasa</i> (1/12, 8.3%). Resistance profiling to different antibiotic classes revealed that all isolates (eight) were resistant to multiple antibiotics tested by us. All isolates were resistant to β-lactams and fluoroquinolones. One strain of <i>E. coli</i> exhibited intermediate resistance to quinolone and penicillin. All strains were categorized as multidrug-resistant. GSE showed antibacterial activity against all isolates.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Wanting to deepen our understanding of the microorganisms that can infect ball pythons and recognizing that all isolated bacteria have zoonotic potential, this paper highlights some common issues faced by exotic animal owners and suggests that treatments should also include the use of essential oils.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40558139/
- PMID 40218366 (2025, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI) — Chains of Commerce: A Comprehensive Review of Animal Welfare Impacts in the International Wildlife Trade.. Abstract (opening): The commercial wildlife trade involves billions of animals each year, consumed for various purposes, including food, fashion, entertainment, traditional medicine, and pets. The experiences of the animals involved vary widely, with negative welfare states being commonplace. To highlight the broad scope of animal welfare impacts across the commercial wildlife trade, we present ten case studies featuring a range of species traded globally for different purposes: (1) Ball pythons captured and farmed to serve as pets; (2) Zebrafish captive bred to serve as pets; (3) African Grey Parrots taken from the wild for the pet industry; (4) Sharks de-finned for traditional medicine; (5) Pangolins hunted for traditional medicine; (6) Crickets farmed for food and feed; (7) Frogs wild-caught for the frog-leg trade; (8) Crocodilians killed for their skins; (9) Lions farmed and killed for tourism; and (10) Elephants held captive for tourism. The case studies demonstrate that wild animals commercially traded can suffer from negative welfare states ranging from chronic stress and depression to frustration and extreme hunger. The individuals involved range from hundreds to billions, and their suffering can last a lifetime. Given the welfare issues identified and the growing recognition and scientific evidence for animal sentience, we propose reducing and redirecting consumer demand for these consumptive wildlife practices that negatively impact animals.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40218366/
- PMID 40040920 (2025, One health (Amsterdam, Netherlands)) — Structure, conservation and health implications of urban wild meat value chains: A case study of Lagos, Nigeria.. Abstract (opening): Urban wild meat value chains represent a vital source of protein and livelihood intertwined with culture and complex market systems. Against the backdrop of escalating zoonotic disease concerns linked to wild meat, this research aimed to unravel the structure, governance, species composition and actor characteristics of the wild meat value chain in Lagos, Africa's most populated city. We employed a cross-sectional study design incorporating qualitative and quantitative approaches. Interviews (<i>n</i> = 22) were conducted and structured questionnaires were administered to participants (<i>n</i> = 257) across 15 sites in Lagos. Participants' activities were also observed, and field notes were taken. Descriptive statistics and inductive thematic approach were used for data analysis. Findings revealed five main value chain nodes: hunter, processor, wholesale, retail and consumer; and five major geographical areas from which wild meat flowed into the city. Governance structures showed a blend of informal and formal mechanisms sustained through trust, cultural beliefs and informal regulations. The main motivation was income (88.1 %), and period of optimum activity was at night times (53 %) during the dry season (≥ 62 %). Women (62.2 %) dominated the value chain, prevalent at the wholesaler (61.7 %), processor (89.7 %) and retailer (83 %) nodes. Hunters (40 %) were able to supply wild meat directly to consumers, and the large-scale retailers (26 %) were responsible for exportation of wild meat. A total of 35 species were traded in the value chain, and the most commonly traded species were: grasscutters, duikers, porcupines, and giant-pouched rats (≥90.7 % participants). Pottos, buffalos, tortoises and house snakes were the least traded (≤ 7.0 % participants). This study provides an understanding of Lagos wildlife trade from a value chain perspective, paving the way for interventions to address wildlife conservation challenges and spillover risks. Species traded in the value chain have been globally reported as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens, representing a source of zoonotic spillover risks to actors. Also, the ability of hunters to supply wild meat directly to consumers signals an increase in the speed of zoonotic pathogen spread, and portends a greater risk for public health. Formal governance should be integrated into the value chain to aid effective monitoring and regulation. Conservation and public health interventions should be node-specific and gender-sensitive, targeting the dry seasons when actors' activities peak, and risks of human-wild meat contact are greater. There is need for the re-assessment of the conservation statuses of West Africa's wildlife species to reflect current realities foisted by wild meat trade.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40040920/
- PMID 38979670 (2024, Veterinary medicine and science) — Retrospective study on the occurrence of Salmonella serotypes in veterinary specimens of Atlantic Canada (2012-2021).. Abstract (opening): <h4>Aim</h4>This study aimed to summarize the frequency and the antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of the Salmonella serotypes identified from the specimens of companion animals, livestock, avian, wildlife and exotic species within Atlantic Canada.<h4>Materials and methods</h4>The retrospective electronic laboratory data of microbiological analyses of a selected subset of samples from 03 January 2012 to 29 December 2021 submitted from various animal species were retrieved. The frequency of Salmonella serotypes identified, and their antimicrobial susceptibility results obtained using the disk diffusion or broth method were analysed. The test results were interpreted according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute standard. The Salmonella serotypes were identified by slide agglutination (Kauffman-White-Le-Minor Scheme) and/or the Whole Genome Sequencing for the Salmonella in silico Serovar Typing Resource-based identification.<h4>Results</h4>Of the cases included in this study, 4.6% (n = 154) had at least one Salmonella isolate, corresponding to 55 different serovars. Salmonella isolation was highest from exotic animal species (n = 40, 1.20%), followed by porcine (n = 26, 0.78%), and canine (n = 23, 0.69%). Salmonella subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium was predominant among exotic mammals, porcine and caprine samples, whereas S. Enteritidis was mostly identified in bovine and canine samples. S. Typhimurium of porcine origin was frequently resistant (>70.0%) to ampicillin. In contrast, S. Typhimurium isolates from porcine and caprine samples were susceptible (>70.0%) to florfenicol. S. Oranienburg from equine samples was susceptible to chloramphenicol, but frequently resistant (>90.0%) to azithromycin. In avian samples, S. Copenhagen was susceptible (>90.0%) to florfenicol, whereas Muenchen was frequently resistant (>90.0%) to florfenicol. S. subsp. diarizonae serovar IIIb:61:k:1,5 of ovine origin was resistant (50.0% isolates) to sulfadimethoxine. No significant changes were observed in the antibiotic resistance profiles across the study years.<h4>Conclusions</h4>This report provides data for surveillance studies, distribution of Salmonella serotypes and their antimicrobial resistance among veterinary specimens of Atlantic Canada.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38979670/
- PMID 38878258 (2024, Brazilian journal of microbiology : [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology]) — MYCOLICIBACTERIUM FORTUITUM INFECTION IN EX SITU EMERALD TREE BOA (Corallus batesii).. Abstract (opening): Emerald tree boas (Corallus batesii) are boids that in situ occurs in forested habitats in the Amazon Basin. The mycobacterial species can infect reptiles but the species Mycolicibacterium fortuitum was identified only in feces samples of ex situ Python regius and was isolated from granulomatous lesions of an ex situ Iguana iguana when was still part of the genus Mycobacterium. This article aims to report a mycobacteria infection case in a female Corallus batesii kept under human care. The animal presented apathy and 2 months of anorexia, being found dead. The necropsy revealed presence of tracheal and pulmonary nodules besides multifocal, bacterial, granulomatous pneumonia. After Fite-Faraco histochemical staining, immunohistochemistry, semi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genetic sequencing the Mycolicibacterium fortuitum complex was diagnosed with 99.54% of nucleotide similarity. This mycobacterial species was already pointed out as an important nosocomial pathogen and more studies are necessary to explore their zoonotic potential.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38878258/
- PMID 39759953 (2024, Case reports in infectious diseases) — A Novel, Nonaquatic Zoonotic Transmission of <i>Mycobacterium marinum</i>.. Abstract (opening): <b>Introduction:</b> <i>Mycobacterium marinum</i> was first described in humans in 1954, known to infect fish species and contaminate water and fish products. Inoculation to humans occurs through injured skin resulting in the formation of a solitary nodule known as "fish tank granuloma." Disseminated infections have been reported in the immunocompromised and can present with extracutaneous manifestations such as arthritis and osteomyelitis. Nonaquatic transmission has not been previously reported. <b>Case Presentation:</b> A 63-year-old lady with rheumatoid arthritis and bronchiectasis was referred to dermatology with widespread soft dermal plaques, pustules, erosions, and necrotic wounds. Multiple bacterial and viral swabs were negative. A biopsy was performed that showed a neutrophilic dermatosis suggestive of Sweet's Syndrome. The patient initially improved with prednisolone, but subsequently deteriorated with a worsening rash, joint pains, and neutropenic sepsis. Repeat biopsies eventually revealed abundant acid-fast bacilli, later confirmed to be <i>Mycobacterium marinum</i>. Our patient had no history of exposure to aquatic organisms but had previously cared for an inland bearded dragon with an unknown illness. Although infection with <i>M. marinum</i> has been reported in reptiles, cases of nonaquatic zoonotic transmission have not been described in the literature. <b>Conclusion:</b> <i>Mycobacterium marinum</i> infection should be considered in patients with indicative clinical and histological features, especially in the immunocompromised, even in the absence of an obvious aquatic source of infection. Awareness of this entity could lead to earlier diagnoses and reduced morbidity and mortality.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39759953/
Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_ball_python_clinical_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).