{"topic_id":"evidence_exotic_pet_bird_toxicology","category":"evidence","context":"---\ntopic_id: evidence_exotic_pet_bird_toxicology\ncategory: evidence\ntitle: \"Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)\"\nlang: en\nsource: \"Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search, first-hand peer-reviewed abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01\"\nsource_file: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt\ndate_parsed: 2026-08-01\ntokens_estimated: 4998\nverification:\n method: substring_match\n claims: 12\n passed: 12\n date: 2026-08-01\nsource_document: \"Peer-reviewed Pet bird toxicology literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)\"\ncitation:\n authority: \"Europe PMC\"\n title: \"Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)\"\n url: \"https://www.ebi.ac.uk/europepmc/\"\n retrieved: \"2026-08-01\"\n doc_type: \"first-hand abstracts (Europe PMC REST)\"\n needs_review: false\n---\n\n# Evidence: Pet bird (psittacine) toxicology\n\nSource: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01.\nQueries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for psittacine.\nThe cluster returns **12** representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.\n\n## Studies\n- **PMID 41810234 (2026, Frontiers in medicine)** — <i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i> infection presenting as a mediastinal mass in an immunocompetent child with parrot exposure: a case report and literature review.. Abstract (opening): Cryptococcus neoformans typically causes pulmonary or central nervous system (CNS) infections, but mediastinal mass as its primary manifestation is rare-especially in immunocompetent children with pet parrot exposure. This study reports a 7-year-old girl who presented with recurrent fever and a mediastinal mass secondary to Cryptococcus neoformans infection, with a 5-month history of daily contact with parrot feces. Conventional diagnostic tests (e.g., fungal culture, serology) were negative, and the diagnosis was confirmed by targeted metagenomic next-generation sequencing (tNGS) of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The patient received a three-phase antifungal regimen: induction with amphotericin B + flucytosine, consolidation with fluconazole, and maintenance with low-dose fluconazole. After one year of treatment, the mediastinal mass nearly resolved, and no recurrence was observed. A literature review, supplemented with specific cases of parrot-associated Cryptococcus neoformans infection, highlights that parrot exposure is an underrecognized risk factor for pediatric cryptococcosis, and tNGS significantly improves diagnostic efficiency for atypical extrapulmonary manifestations. This case emphasizes the importance of inquiring about pet bird exposure in children with unexplained mediastinal masses and fever, and supports the use of tNGS for early, non-invasive diagnosis.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41810234/\n- **PMID 42338934 (2026, Frontiers in medicine)** — A case report of spherical pneumonia caused by <i>Chlamydia psittaci</i> infection.. Abstract (opening): Psittacosis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by Chlamydia psittaci, typically transmitted from birds to humans. Its clinical manifestations are often subtle and non-specific, making it prone to being misdiagnosed as common community-acquired pneumonia. Round pneumonia (or spherical pneumonia) refers to a lung infection that appears as a round or oval density on computed tomography (CT). It is uncommon in adults. Spherical pneumonia specifically caused by Chlamydia psittaci infection is particularly uncommon. Here we report a case of a 43-year-old male who was admitted due to a 4-day history of fever. CT imaging revealed a solitary, round high-density shadow approximately 4 cm in diameter in the right lower lung, with clear margins and surrounding ground-glass opacity. The patient reported direct contact with ornamental parrots at a zoo 10 days before the onset of symptoms. The diagnosis of spherical pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci infection was confirmed by targeted next-generation sequencing (tNGS). The patient's symptoms resolved following treatment with minocycline, and a follow-up CT scan 32 days later showed near-complete resolution of the lesion. This case demonstrates that Chlamydia psittaci can also produce a typical spherical lesion, thereby broadening the recognized imaging spectrum of this pathogen. When clinicians encounter a patient with imaging findings suggestive of spherical pneumonia and a history of bird exposure, Chlamydia psittaci infection should be suspected, especially when accompanied by extrapulmonary symptoms such as headache, myalgia, or hepatosplenomegaly, necessitating a comprehensive assessment that integrates epidemiological history and molecular diagnostic methods.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42338934/\n- **PMID 42192709 (2026, Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland))** — Pet Birds as Potential Reservoirs of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria in Digestive and Respiratory Infections.. Abstract (opening):

Background/objectives

Pet birds are increasingly recognized as potential reservoirs of zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, raising concerns within the One Health framework. However, data on bacterial diversity and resistance profiles in clinically affected ornamental birds remain limited.

Methods

This study, conducted over three years (November 2022-March 2026), included 198 pet birds presenting with digestive and respiratory disorders. From these birds, clinical samples were analyzed bacteriologically; resulting isolates were identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, and antimicrobial susceptibility assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method according to EUCAST and CLSI guidelines.

Results

Bacterial growth was detected in 87.9% of cases, yielding 249 distinct isolates. Gram-positive cocci predominated (62.3%), led by Staphylococcus spp. (33.3%) and Enterococcus spp. (9.6%), while Escherichia coli (9.2%) was the primary Gram-negative species. At the genus level, Staphylococcus spp. demonstrated high susceptibility to amikacin (88.5%) but significant resistance to gentamicin (75.6%) and oxytetracycline (63.6%). In contrast, Escherichia spp. isolates were largely resistant, showing only 50% susceptibility to enrofloxacin and 40% to doxycycline, with resistance to tylosin reaching 90%. Overall, 57% of isolates were multidrug-resistant, with Staphylococcus spp. contributing most to this burden.

Conclusions

These findings characterize clinically ill pet birds as significant carriers of multidrug-resistant bacteria, highlighting the need for routine diagnostics and improved antimicrobial stewardship in avian medicine.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42192709/\n- **PMID 41776660 (2026, Journal of occupational medicine and toxicology (London, England))** — Prevalence of antibodies against hantavirus, Leptospira, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and Chlamydia psittaci in pest control workers in Germany - a cross-sectional study.. Abstract (opening):

Background

Pest control workers may be exposed to zoonotic pathogens during their work, yet data on the prevalence of zoonotic infections in this occupational group in Germany is scarce. This study investigated the seroprevalence of antibodies against four pathogens commonly transmitted by rodents and pigeons among pest control workers in Germany.

Methods

Blood samples of participants were analysed for antibodies against hantavirus, Leptospira, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCM virus) and Chlamydia psittaci. Additional data was collected using a questionnaire.

Results

Among the 154 participants, five were seropositive for hantavirus (3.2%), seven for Leptospira (4.6%) and two for Chlamydia psittaci (1.5%). No participants tested positive for LCM virus. Seropositive participants were mostly male (85.7%), aged 31-63 years and were predominantly engaged in field service pest control activities (85.7%). Both highly experienced (> 20 years of experience) and fairly inexperienced (< 1 year of experience) workers were affected. Notably, 42.9% of seropositive participants reported no or only occasional occupational exposure to the respective reservoir species. Most reported only occasional use of personal protective equipment (57.1%). Self-rated knowledge of zoonotic diseases was most commonly rated as moderate (50.0%) or good (42.9%).

Conclusion

Seroprevalence of antibodies against hantavirus, Leptospira, LCM virus, and Chlamydia psittaci was low among pest control workers in Germany. This may be indicative of effective infection control in this occupational group. Workers should receive intensified, regular training to further strengthen their knowledge of zoonotic diseases and improve adherence to precautionary measures.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41776660/\n- **PMID 42221949 (2026, Frontiers in veterinary science)** — Behavioral assessment of blue-fronted Amazon parrots (<i>Amazona aestiva</i> Linnaeus, 1758) subjected to experimentally induced osteoarthritis and rescue analgesia with tramadol in a laboratory environment.. Abstract (opening):

Introduction

This study aimed to identify behavioral changes in three blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) subjected to experimental induction of osteoarthritis and subsequent tramadol rescue analgesia.

Methods

All parrots received injections of 0.1 mL of 8% monosodium urate monohydrate (MUM) solution into the left intertarsal joint. Behaviors were recorded during all study phases (1: baseline; 2: post-induction of osteoarthritis; 3: post-induction of osteoarthritis with tramadol 1; 4: post-induction of osteoarthritis with tramadol 2) using focal sampling with instantaneous recordings every 30 s during 20-min sessions. Data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models.

Results

Observed changes in behavioral patterns, including decreased locomotion, and exploration, increased stopped and inactive behavior, and reduced cage use (fewer areas used during acute pain), followed by partial recovery after tramadol administration, were consistent with the manifestation of unilateral arthritic pain and its possible attenuation.

Discussion

The species-specific ethogram for arthritic pain developed in this study may contribute to future antialgic evaluations with tramadol and other drugs, supporting the future development of a pain assessment scale for blue-fronted Amazon parrots.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42221949/\n- **PMID 41998070 (2026, Scientific reports)** — The role of synbiotic in controlling Salmonella infection in broilers.. Abstract (opening): Salmonellosis significantly affects poultry production sector and public health, through the emergence of multi-drug resistant (MDR) strains, which require attempts to use sustainable, safe, and effective alternatives. This study was carried out over the period spanning 2024 to 2025 and involved two steps. The first step included Salmonella isolation and characterization from 25 diseased poultry farms from various regions of Northwest Delta, Egypt, focusing on some of their virulence genes and sensitivity to antibiotics. The second experimental step involved exploring the effectiveness of synbiotic compared with traditional antibiotics in reducing Salmonella colonization and their impact on poultry performance, including growth performance, immunological parameters, and pathological changes after artificial infection. The result revealed the presence of Salmonella sp. in 16% (40/250) of examined samples, including 3 serotypes, Salmonella Papuana, Salmonella Enteritidis, and Salmonella Kentucky, with different values of MAR index ranging between 0.21 and 0.43. Marked resistances were recorded against amoxicillin, lincomycin and spiramycin (100%), followed by ampicillin (75%), while the highest sensitivity was observed toward amikacin, gentamicin, cefotaxime, colistin sulfate, and streptomycin. All Salmonella strains contained the invA and enterotoxin gene (stn), whereas spvC was detected in 75% of isolates. The study declared the impact of the supplementation of synbiotic in feed in improvement of the growth performance parameters, decreased Salmonella colonization, reduced severity of clinical signs and postmortem lesions relative to the other groups (untreated group and antibiotic treated group), in addition to its considerable improvement in hematological, biochemical, and immunological parameters and less pathological alterations than other groups.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41998070/\n- **PMID 42181097 (2026, Veterinary and animal science)** — Almond shell as an insoluble fibre source in laying pullets: influence of inclusion level and particle size on performance and intestinal health.. Abstract (opening): Dietary fibre (DF) is increasingly recognised for its role in poultry nutrition, particularly in supporting gut health. Almond shells (AS), rich in insoluble fibre (IF), represent a potential DF source. This study assessed the effects of fine (FAS) and coarse (CAS) AS included at 1% and 2% (FAS1, FAS2, CAS1, CAS2) compared with a control diet (NC) without supplemental IF on growth performance, dry matter digestibility, organ development, intestinal morphology, gene expression, caecal microbiota, and volatile fatty acids (VFA) in 6-week-old pullets over 28 days. AS inclusion did not influence productive parameters (P > 0.05). However, diets with 2% FAS, 1% CAS, and 2% CAS improved dry matter digestibility versus NC (P < 0.05). Proventriculus weight was greater in CAS-fed birds than in NC or FAS groups (P < 0.05), indicating a particle-size effect. Gizzard development was enhanced in FAS2, CAS1, and CAS2 compared with NC and FAS1 (P < 0.05), suggesting effects of both inclusion level and particle size. In intestinal morphology, CAS-fed birds exhibited longer villi, greater villus surface area, and thicker mucosa in the duodenum and jejunum than FAS-fed birds (P < 0.05). No dietary effects were detected on barrier-related or inflammatory gene expression, caecal microbiota, or VFA profiles (P > 0.05). In conclusion, AS inclusion as an IF source was associated with improved dry matter digestibility, increased relative weights of the proventriculus and gizzard, and enhanced intestinal morphology, particularly at 2% inclusion and in coarse particle form. Although, no effects were detected on growth performance, microbiota, or VFA profiles.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42181097/\n- **PMID 41526494 (2026, Scientific reports)** — Isolation and phylogenomic characterization of two novel, dissimilar orthoreoviruses from Northern Alaskan Sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni).. Abstract (opening): Sea otters are a keystone species with cultural significance to Indigenous populations. The increased mortality of Northern sea otters (E. lutris kenyoni) near Kachemak Bay, Alaska, led to a surveillance study to determine the cause of the increased deaths. Samples EL1562 and EL1411 were obtained from two dead-stranded sea otters. Whole genomes of two different orthoreoviruses with all ten segments were obtained. All EL1562 genome segments show the highest similarity to Phocid orthoreovirus 1, a new species isolated from harbor seals. However, the σ1 protein exhibits high divergence (34% amino acid identity) that warrants re-evaluation of the species demarcation criteria. Cell culture and microscopy are consistent with EL1562 being similar to Phocid orthoreovirus 1. Based on binomial naming conventions, we suggest the species name Orthoreovirus marinarum, which encompasses both EL1562 and PhRV1. Characterization of EL1411 sequences shows that it belongs to the species Orthoreovirus mammalis, which includes members from terrestrial mammals. This study represents the first orthoreovirus cultured and genome sequenced from sea otters, and is only the second report of a mammalian orthoreovirus in marine mammals. This study provides new insights into the genetic diversity of orthoreovirus in marine mammals and the evolutionary linkage between terrestrial and marine orthoreoviruses.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41526494/\n- **PMID 40391266 (2025, Health science reports)** — Psittacosis in Focus: A Review Addressing the Risks and Management Challenges in Outbreak Scenarios.. Abstract (opening):

Background and aim

Psittacosis is a zoonotic disease that mostly affects birds and can infect people. It causes respiratory ailments that can be minor or severe. The disease's importance to public health is shown by the fact that it has been connected to isolated outbreaks in several parts of the world. Comprehending the hazards linked to psittacosis is crucial, given that epidemics may have extensive consequences for public health, especially in environments where people and birds interact closely. Therefore, examining the risks, challenges, and methods for overcoming psittacosis infections is the primary focus of the study.

Discussion

Psittacosis' principal dangers include severe respiratory problems, which are especially dangerous for vulnerable groups. Inadequate diagnostic goods and services, public ignorance, and variances in hospital infrastructure all pose challenges to effective management. Strategies for combating psittacosis must include improved monitoring and reporting systems, better access to diagnosis and treatment, and expanded public awareness on protection. Incorporating biosecurity strategies in flocks and agricultural operations is also critical to lowering transmission risk.

Conclusion

Prioritizing psittacosis control is imperative for global health regulatory organizations to prevent future outbreaks. To promote research, allocate funds, and support public health initiatives aimed at enhancing disease management, quick action is needed. By promoting international cooperation and enhancing healthcare systems, we can effectively address the problems caused by psittacosis and better safeguard populations everywhere from this preventable disease.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40391266/\n- **PMID 40820131 (2025, BMC microbiology)** — Gallibacterium anatis as an emerging pathogen in pet birds: biofilm formation contributes to treatment challenges and persistence.. Abstract (opening):

Background

Gallibacterium anatis (G. anatis), a microorganism of the Pasteurellaceae family, is an emerging avian pathogen associated with reproductive and respiratory diseases in poultry. However, its role in ornamental birds is still poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to conduct the first comprehensive survey of the prevalence of G. anatis in pet birds, to investigate its antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profile and to assess its ability to form biofilms using cultural, biochemical, molecular and histopathological methods.

Methods

In this study, 191 fecal and tissue samples were collected from various companion birds. Clinical samples were cultured on 5% sheep blood agar and MacConkey agar plates to isolate bacterial pathogens. After incubation, colonies were evaluated based on their macroscopic characteristics such as size, color, and hemolytic properties on blood agar-and a Gram stain was performed as an essential preliminary step for bacterial identification. The 16-23 S rRNA gene region of G. anatis was amplified by PCR method. The disc diffusion method was used to assess microbial susceptibility and resistance. Biofilm formation was analyzed using a microtiter plate assay. Tissue samples were routinely processed, embedded in paraffin, sectioned and stained with common haematoxylin-eosin (H&E).

Results

In this study, 20 G. anatis strains were isolated from 191 clinical samples of pet birds, representing a prevalence of 10.5%. Isolates were identified by colony morphology, Gram staining, biochemical testing and PCR for the -intergenic spacer region of 16-23 S rRNA, which yielded diagnostic amplicons of 790 bp and 1080 bp. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed complete susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (100%) and remarkable resistance to erythromycin (80%). β-lactam resistance was prevalent, with 70% and 75% of isolates resistant to ampicillin and amoxicillin, respectively. Biofilm formation tests showed that 80% of isolates had moderate biofilm formation. Gross and histopathological examinations of infected birds revealed severe respiratory and systemic lesions, including tracheitis, bronchopneumonia with focal necrosis, multifocal hepatic necrosis, and vascular congestion in multiple organs.

Conclusions

These results support the idea that G. anatis is a potentially important pathogen, with a biofilm-forming ability that contributes to treatment failure and environmental persistence. The 45% prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) highlights the pressing need for antimicrobial stewardship in avian veterinary medicine. Given the zoonotic potential of G. anatis, our study underscores the importance of One Health surveillance efforts in mitigating risk to both poultry and humans.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40820131/\n- **PMID 40860922 (2025, Frontiers in veterinary science)** — Avian toxicoses: a review.. Abstract (opening): Bird species, both domestic and wild, are frequently exposed to a wide range of toxic compounds. Toxicosis in avian patients is often a clinical challenge. Diagnosis often relies on history and clinical signs because specific tests for most toxicants are not available in clinical practice, or they require unsustainable blood volume for small avian species. The management of toxicoses consists of patient stabilization, decreasing toxin absorption, improving its elimination, and supporting therapy. This literature review provides an outline of the most common toxicoses in birds, as well as their diagnosis and possible treatments.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40860922/\n- **PMID 40559834 (2025, Veterinary sciences)** — Occurrence of <i>Aspergillus</i> spp. in Parrot Feeds on the Polish Market: The Potential Health Threat of Aspergillosis and Mycotoxicosis for Exotic Pet Birds, a Pilot Study.. Abstract (opening): A lack of awareness among exotic bird owners regarding the quality of feed may contribute to adverse health outcomes, including toxicosis, systemic mycoses, and potentially neoplastic processes. Fungi of the Aspergillus genus are the most pathogenic to avian species, particularly due to their involvement in respiratory diseases such as aspergillosis, which affects the air sacs. This study aims to assess the presence of Aspergillus spp. in commercially available parrot feed (grain mixtures) available on the Polish pet market, considering different price categories. A total of 22 dry parrot food samples were analyzed using the PN-ISO 21527-2:2009 protocol. Aspergillus spp. colonies were isolated from 16 out of 22 samples (72.7%), indicating a high incidence of contamination. Although these results are preliminary, they highlight a microbiological risk associated with grain-based parrot feeds and underscore the need for stricter quality control and greater awareness among pet owners and manufacturers.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40559834/\n\nSource text: `pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt` (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).\n","sources":["Europe PMC — Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC) (retrieved 2026-08-01)"],"source":{"authority":"Europe PMC","title":"Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)","url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41810234/","retrieved":"2026-08-01","ref":"PMID 41810234","doc_type":"official PDF","source_document":"Peer-reviewed Pet bird toxicology literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)","verification_file":"pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt"},"source_document":"Peer-reviewed Pet bird toxicology literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)","source_file":"pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt","tokens_estimated":600,"generated_at":null,"tip":"Use /api/v1/topics to discover more topics. /api/v1/nutrient for precise single-point queries. /api/v1/cross_compare for 2-3 standard comparisons."}