{"topic_id":"evidence_exotic_pet_bird_husbandry_health","category":"evidence","context":"---\ntopic_id: evidence_exotic_pet_bird_husbandry_health\ncategory: evidence\ntitle: \"Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) husbandry, health & nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)\"\nlang: en\nsource: \"Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search, first-hand peer-reviewed abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01\"\nsource_file: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_husbandry_health_2026-08-01.txt\ndate_parsed: 2026-08-01\ntokens_estimated: 4885\nverification:\n method: substring_match\n claims: 12\n passed: 12\n date: 2026-08-01\nsource_document: \"Peer-reviewed Pet bird husbandry/health/nutrition literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)\"\ncitation:\n authority: \"Europe PMC\"\n title: \"Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) husbandry, health & nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)\"\n url: \"https://www.ebi.ac.uk/europepmc/\"\n retrieved: \"2026-08-01\"\n doc_type: \"first-hand abstracts (Europe PMC REST)\"\n needs_review: false\n---\n\n# Evidence: Pet bird (psittacine) husbandry, health & nutrition\n\nSource: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01.\nQueries covered husbandry, health/disease/parasitology, and nutrition/feeding for psittacine.\nThe cluster returns **12** representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.\n\n## Studies\n- **PMID 41981655 (2026, BMC veterinary research)** — Medication adherence in pet bird owners: index development and assessment of various application types via an online questionnaire.. Abstract (opening): BACKGROUND: Adherence to medication prescriptions substantially contributes to therapeutic success. In pet bird medicine, however, measures to determine adherence and possible causes are lacking. This study aimed to develop medication adherence indices for companion bird owners, including single and multiple application types. RESULTS: The single veterinary medication adherence index (SVMAI-4), a 4-point index developed for individual treatment types, considers changes in treatment type, dosage or treatment time, early discontinuation, and total refusal for 9 application types. The overall adherence index OVMAI-5, a 5-point index addresses multiple application types and also considers nonprescribed medication. An online questionnaire was developed to evaluate the indices and measure determinants of adherence based on self-reports and implemented in a cross-sectional survey of 1480 bird owners. The results revealed that oral application directly into the beak (62.5% of birds) and by drinking water (28.3%) were the most common application types. Distinct differences among application types were found. With a range of 0 (full adherence) to 4 (full nonadherence), adherence was highest for cutaneous application (mean = 0.36, standard deviation (SD) = 0.736) and lowest for peroral application into the beak (mean 0.59; SD = 1.023) and injection (mean 0.73, SD = 1.126). The OVMAI-5 calculated when assessing the use of multiple application types resulted in a mean score of 0.84 (SD = 1.247), ranging from 0 to 5. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest a need for action regarding the application types most commonly used in avian medicine. Wherever possible, oral administration via the beak should be avoided. Due to the self-reporting method used, it must be assumed that our results overestimate adherence and cannot be externally evaluated in a straightforward way. Animal patient-related factors are the most important determinants of medication adherence.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41981655/\n- **PMID 42255501 (2026, Science in One Health)** — The re-emergence of psittacosis in China: a scoping review of epidemiology, diagnostics, and One Health priorities.. Abstract (opening): Psittacosis caused by Chlamydia psittaci has re-emerged in China as sporadic cases and localized outbreaks. However, current knowledge remains fragmented across the clinical, veterinary, epidemiological, and public health fields. This scoping review mapped studies on psittacosis in China, identified major knowledge gaps, and defined priorities for research, clinical management, and prevention and control. Following the Arksey and O'Malley framework and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang, PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase were searched for studies published between 1 January 1985 and 31 December 2025 and synthesized eligible studies with descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. A total of 424 studies were included. Research interest showed recent sharp increases and was concentrated in Eastern and Central China. Case reports and series dominated the literature, whereas analytic epidemiology, standardized surveillance, and high-resolution molecular studies remained limited. Reported cases were most often documented in middle-aged and older adults with avian exposure, including pet birds and poultry, and the reported occurrence showed a winter-spring pattern. Pneumonia was the predominant clinical presentation, and severe cases could progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome and multi-organ dysfunction. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) was the most frequently reported diagnostic method in recent studies, while PCR and serology remained important complementary tools. Overall, the literature is growing rapidly, but remains uneven in geographic coverage, study design, and integration across human, animal, and environmental sectors. These findings support broader One Health surveillance, stronger analytic and molecular epidemiology, and more standardized approaches to diagnosis, source investigation, and prevention in China.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42255501/\n- **PMID 42192709 (2026, Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland))** — Pet Birds as Potential Reservoirs of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria in Digestive and Respiratory Infections.. Abstract (opening):

Background/objectives

Pet birds are increasingly recognized as potential reservoirs of zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, raising concerns within the One Health framework. However, data on bacterial diversity and resistance profiles in clinically affected ornamental birds remain limited.

Methods

This study, conducted over three years (November 2022-March 2026), included 198 pet birds presenting with digestive and respiratory disorders. From these birds, clinical samples were analyzed bacteriologically; resulting isolates were identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, and antimicrobial susceptibility assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method according to EUCAST and CLSI guidelines.

Results

Bacterial growth was detected in 87.9% of cases, yielding 249 distinct isolates. Gram-positive cocci predominated (62.3%), led by Staphylococcus spp. (33.3%) and Enterococcus spp. (9.6%), while Escherichia coli (9.2%) was the primary Gram-negative species. At the genus level, Staphylococcus spp. demonstrated high susceptibility to amikacin (88.5%) but significant resistance to gentamicin (75.6%) and oxytetracycline (63.6%). In contrast, Escherichia spp. isolates were largely resistant, showing only 50% susceptibility to enrofloxacin and 40% to doxycycline, with resistance to tylosin reaching 90%. Overall, 57% of isolates were multidrug-resistant, with Staphylococcus spp. contributing most to this burden.

Conclusions

These findings characterize clinically ill pet birds as significant carriers of multidrug-resistant bacteria, highlighting the need for routine diagnostics and improved antimicrobial stewardship in avian medicine.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42192709/\n- **PMID 42182914 (2026, Frontiers in veterinary science)** — Recent advances in isothermal amplification techniques for detection of animal diseases.. Abstract (opening): Prompt pathogen detection is critical in protecting public health, improving animal health, welfare, food safety, and food security in both food-producing and companion animals. Although conventional and molecular diagnostic methods are highly effective, they often require expensive instrumentation, specialized laboratory infrastructure, and trained personnel, limiting their applicability in field and resource-limited settings. Isothermal amplification technologies have emerged in recent times as powerful alternatives to conventional PCR-based methods, offering rapid, sensitive and user-friendly nucleic acid detection without the need for thermocycling equipment. The present review summarizes recent advances in isothermal amplification methods and their applications in the detection of pathogens in livestock and companion animals. It also highlights innovations in assay design, improvements in analytics, and their incorporation into portable and field-deployable detection platforms. Furthermore, the review explores the challenges and future directions for the application of these technologies in routine veterinary diagnostics and integrated disease surveillance programs.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42182914/\n- **PMID 42374429 (2026, BMC veterinary research)** — Molecular survey of Cryptosporidium spp. in ornamental birds and their sellers: implications for One Health.. Abstract (opening): Cryptosporidiosis, a disease caused by the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium, can lead to prolonged and chronic diarrhea in individuals with weakened immune systems. The zoonotic characteristics of this parasite may impose notable economic challenges. This study investigates the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in ornamental birds and their sellers in Isfahan, the central region of Iran.A total of 223 samples, comprising 193 bird faecal samples (86.55%) and 30 seller samples (13.45%), were collected from pet stores throughout Isfahan. The samples were microscopically examined using the modified Ziehl-Neelsen staining method. Positive samples were subsequently subjected to DNA extraction and nested PCR for Cryptosporidium species identification. Furthermore, a phylogenetic tree and a haplotype network were constructed to investigate the evolutionary relationships and haplotype network distribution patterns, respectively.The infection was detected in 4.66% (9/193) of ornamental birds and 13.33% (4/30) of bird sellers. Among the infected birds, 8 (4.15%) were identified as C. parvum and 1 (0.52%) as C. galli, while all infected sellers (4/30) harboured C. parvum. No significant correlation was observed between demographic variables and infection rates. Notably, in two pet shops, both birds and sellers were concurrently infected, indicating a potential zoonotic transmission link.This study reveals the presence of Cryptosporidium in pet birds and their sellers, emphasizing the potential for zoonotic transmission. By employing a One Health approach through phylogenetic tree construction and haplotype network analysis, the interconnectedness between human and pet bird populations is evident. As close contact between birds and their sellers may facilitate disease transmission, regular testing is highly recommended to monitor and prevent the spread of Cryptosporidium.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42374429/\n- **PMID 42476765 (2026, Journal of epidemiology)** — Practice status and precise prevention and control strategies of psittacosis in urban pet pigeons and bird-related population in China.. Abstract (opening):

Background

Global urbanization intensifies human contact with pet birds, increasing the risk of psittacosis. Using Shenzhen, China, as a case study, this research investigates knowledge and practices related to psittacosis prevention among professionals and pet bird owners, aiming to inform targeted urban zoonotic disease control strategies.

Methods

A cross-sectional survey was conducted from September 2023 to October 2024 in Shenzhen using a self-administered questionnaire. Participants included practitioners in bird/pigeon businesses and household bird keepers. Primary outcomes were knowledge and behavior scores.

Results

Among 429 participants, the median total knowledge and practice score was 47.0 (out of 80), with only 13.5% scoring above 60. Practitioners scored significantly higher than pet owners (P < 0.05). Among keepers, the lowest awareness rates were for sources of infection, clinical symptoms, and incubation period (13.2%-22.1%), and the lowest behavior formation rates were for using protective measures, waste disposal, and responding to abnormal symptoms in pigeon and bird (10.9%-15.5%). Multivariate analysis identified key factors influencing scores: among practitioners, being male, having less experience, and lacking health education were associated with lower scores (P < 0.05). Among keepers, being female, higher education, purchasing from breeding bases, keeping multiple species, and prior psittacosis diagnosis predicted higher scores, while older age (> 50) and online bird purchases predicted lower scores (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The overall psittacosis prevention capacity among bird-keeping populations in Shenzhen is moderate. There is an urgent need for stratified, context-specific interventions including standardized guidance and systematic health education to improve prevention effectiveness in urban settings.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42476765/\n- **PMID 41288073 (2026, Microbiology resource announcements)** — Draft genome sequence of a multidrug-resistant <i>Klebsiella pneumoniae</i> MTR-Kp-OBF01 strain isolated from an ornamental bird (<i>Melopsittacus undulatus</i>) in Bangladesh.. Abstract (opening): We report the draft genome sequence of a Klebsiella pneumoniae strain MTR-Kp-OBF01, isolated from a fecal sample of an ornamental bird from a local pet bird shop in Mymensingh city, with a total length of 4,854,485 bp, 1 plasmid, 24 predicted antimicrobial resistance genes, and 10 predicted virulence factor genes.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41288073/\n- **PMID 42387294 (2026, Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology)** — The link between colorfulness and extinction risk across the world's passerine birds.. Abstract (opening): Many of the functional traits that mediate extinction risk across the range of biodiversity relate indirectly to a species' ability to persist in a changing world, yet certain traits such as coloration directly affect human interactions with wildlife. We used an existing dataset of color metrics combined with global functional trait data for 4334 passerine bird species to determine whether colorfulness-that is, the total number of discrete colors in trichromatic color space-predicts two measures of extinction risk: a binary variable indicating whether a species is least concern or not and an ordinal variable of threat level. We also controlled for the potentially confounding effects of four other traits: body size, dispersal ability, forest dependency, and diet. In addition, we assessed whether the global relationship between extinction risk and colorfulness varies by biogeographic realm, breeding latitude, or human development index. Overall, we found that compared with drab species, colorful passerines are at a greater risk of extinction, and this is especially true in Indomalaya and Australasia. We also found that the strength of this relationship is greater for species at higher breeding latitudes and species inhabiting countries with a lower human development index. Finally, we showed that more colorful birds are at greater risk of extinction due in part to the pet bird trade, which favors more attractive species; however, the positive relationship between extinction risk and colorfulness exists even for species not known from the pet trade, suggesting other mechanisms for this relationship. Closing the gap in threat status requires accurate evaluation of the threats to drab and colorful species alike, while also combatting the known threats to colorful birds including illegal trade.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42387294/\n- **PMID 41631630 (2026, Environmental science. Processes & impacts)** — Unraveling the sources and influencing mechanism of soil antibiotic resistance genes in urban micro green spaces.. Abstract (opening): Characterized by the small size and extensive distribution, micro green spaces are vital for urban environmental quality and resident well-being. Yet, they are increasingly recognized as hotspots for the convergence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs); systematic research on ARG pollution in these areas remains limited. This study investigated the distribution and sources of ARGs in soils from 21 micro green spaces in Tianjin, China. The results indicated a high prevalence of ARGs, with a predominance of aminoglycoside, β-lactam, fluoroquinolone and multidrug resistance genes. Their dissemination was primarily facilitated by protection mechanisms and horizontal gene transfer (HGT) mediated by mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Source analysis indicated that in intra-urban areas, ARGs were mainly contributed by trash (46.9%), followed by irrigation water (37.3%) and pet/bird feces (15.8%). In extra-urban areas, irrigation water was the dominant source (72.8%), demonstrating considerable spatial heterogeneity. Mechanistic analysis revealed soil total phosphorus (TP) as the strongest driver of ARG enrichment (p < 0.001). Furthermore, specific phyla like Cloacimonadota and Myxococcota were linked to ARG diffusion through their correlation with MGEs. This study fills a key knowledge gap on ARGs in micro green spaces, providing a scientific basis for interventions aimed at safeguarding urban ecological security and public health.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41631630/\n- **PMID 41870074 (2026, Microbiology resource announcements)** — Draft genome sequences of 16 multidrug-resistant <i>Enterococcus faecalis</i> isolated from ornamental birds and associated environments in Bangladesh.. Abstract (opening): We report the draft genomes of 16 multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolated from ornamental bird settings in Bangladesh. Genomes harbored antimicrobial resistance and virulence factor genes, plasmids, and bacteriocins, with high pathogenicity scores. These findings highlight the potential zoonotic and environmental health risks posed by E. faecalis in ornamental bird environments.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41870074/\n- **PMID 41922412 (2026, Scientific reports)** — Prevalence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Australian wild birds, native wildlife, livestock and domestic animals.. Abstract (opening): The ESKAPE pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, poses a serious threat to medical, veterinary, and agricultural practices globally, and thus has been declared a “Priority Pathogen” by the World Health Organisation. Understanding P. aeruginosa prevalence in wild bird populations, livestock, and domestic animals is vital for evaluating potential infection reservoirs. In this study, we screened 1,669 DNA samples obtained between 2010 and 2023 from healthy and diseased wild birds (n = 1,101), domestic animals (n = 269), livestock (n = 133), kangaroos (n = 39), and koalas (n = 127) from Southeast Queensland, Australia, for both P. aeruginosa and overall bacterial load using an ecfX-16 S rRNA duplex real-time PCR assay. P. aeruginosa-positive samples were also screened for the two most common fluoroquinolone resistance genotypes, GyrA Thr83Ile and GyrA Asp87Asn. Overall, only 1.8% of samples from our large and diverse sample set tested positive for P. aeruginosa. Livestock samples showed the highest P. aeruginosa prevalence (4.5%, n = 6), driven primarily by horses (7.4%, n = 5), with wild birds (1.5%, n = 17), koalas (1.6%, n = 2), and domestic animals (1.9%, n = 5) having the next highest rates. In contrast, no P. aeruginosa positive samples were identified in cattle (n = 45) or kangaroos (n = 39). Nearly all positive wild bird samples originated from eye swabs (94%, n = 16). No additional correlation between swab site, health status, or admission cause was identified. No GyrA Asp87Asn variants were seen; however, the GyrA Thr83Ile variant was seen in 2/30 (6.6%) P. aeruginosa-positive samples, both of horse origin. This finding suggests the presence of a fluoroquinolone resistant subpopulation, however confirmation through phenotypic resistance profiling was unable to be performed. Our findings provide important insight into the epidemiology of P. aeruginosa in Australian wildlife and domestic animal populations from South-East Queensland. Further prevalence studies, particularly covering a broader geographical region, are warranted to better elucidate nationwide P. aeruginosa carriage, infection, and fluoroquinolone resistance rates.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41922412/\n- **PMID 42337985 (2026, MicrobiologyOpen)** — Detection and Characterization of ESBL-Producing and Carbapenem-Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in Ornamental Birds and Their Surrounding Environments.. Abstract (opening): Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-KP) and carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) represent a global health risk, with ornamental birds serving as potential reservoirs for their dissemination. This study aimed to isolate and characterize ESBL-KP and CRKP from ornamental birds and their surrounding environments. A total of 112 samples, including equal numbers of feces, cage swab, cage water, cage feed, store feed, handler's hand swab, nasal swab, and air samples, were collected equally from both households and pet bird shops. Overall, 52.68% (59/112, CI95: 0.435-0.6168) isolates were confirmed as positive, where a higher occurrence was observed in pet store samples (32/56, 57.14%) than in household samples (27/56, 48.21%). In the disk diffusion test, 79.67% (47/59, CI95: 0.6773-0.8796) isolates were identified as multidrug-resistant, with high resistance to imipenem and cefotaxime (both 66.10%), meropenem and ceftriaxone (each 59.02%). The occurrence of ESBL-producing isolates was higher in shop samples (26/32, 81.25%) than in household samples (12/27, 44.44%). In the Congo Red assay, 76.28% (45/59, CI95: 0.6403-0.8531) isolates were identified as strong biofilm producers. Resistance genes, blaCTX-M (92.10%), blaTEM (84.21%), blaSHV (78.95%), blaOXA-51 (51.42%), and blaNDM (34.29%), conferring resistance to beta-lactams and carbapenems were detected in the K. pneumoniae isolates, along with virulence genes, uge (100%), entB (83.05%), mrkD (81.36%), and kfu (30.51%). As a first report from Bangladesh, this study highlights the widespread occurrence of ESBL-KP, CRKP and biofilm-producing K. pneumoniae in ornamental birds, emphasizing the urgent need for a One Health approach to prevent associated zoonotic and environmental risks.\n Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42337985/\n\nSource text: `pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_husbandry_health_2026-08-01.txt` (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).\n","sources":["Europe PMC — Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) husbandry, health & nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC) (retrieved 2026-08-01)"],"source":{"authority":"Europe PMC","title":"Evidence cluster — Pet bird (psittacine) husbandry, health & nutrition (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)","url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41981655/","retrieved":"2026-08-01","ref":"PMID 41981655","doc_type":"official PDF","source_document":"Peer-reviewed Pet bird husbandry/health/nutrition literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)","verification_file":"pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_husbandry_health_2026-08-01.txt"},"source_document":"Peer-reviewed Pet bird husbandry/health/nutrition literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)","source_file":"pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_husbandry_health_2026-08-01.txt","tokens_estimated":600,"generated_at":null,"tip":"Use /api/v1/topics to discover more topics. /api/v1/nutrient for precise single-point queries. /api/v1/cross_compare for 2-3 standard comparisons."}